Tag: India

Introduction

The discovery of iron led to a revolution in Indian agriculture. By the end of the Chalcolithic Age, the Indian subcontinent had been using iron for around 2500–3000 years. Now, during this time, the tools made of iron and steel were stronger and more efficient than those made of bronze. Manufacturing iron tools enhanced farming and contributed to a bigger economy.

The creation of iron farming implements greatly facilitated the agricultural process and contributed to a larger increase in farm produce. People were able to adapt to a stable existence at that time through commercial farming (trade between other nations) and subsistence farming, which helped people produce in huge amounts. Iron implements contributed to the prosperity of tiny kingdoms in a similar manner.

Indian Iron History from a Historical Perspective

In India, evidence of iron tools has been found in megalithic (big stone) burial sites. These sites in India comprised modern-day Karnataka and Kerala in the south, extended to some parts of central India and trans-Vindhyas. In many of these sites, the use of iron perhaps started by the end of the Neolithic and during the Chalcolithic age. 

Our Rig Veda and Yajur Veda contain references to the process of obtaining metal from ores. Iron was the third metal mentioned in Rig Vedic hymns, after gold and silver. Iron utilisation saw rapid development around 1400 BCE. Early evidence of iron smelting was thought to have been produced by tribal craftspeople in several places. 

Agriculture and the Iron

Agriculture underwent a turning point with the invention of iron. People have now begun to create powerful, long-lasting, and simple-to-form tools and weapons with this metal. 

This allowed them to create a compact, extremely sharp, and lightweight instrument that was challenging to craft out of stone or copper. Sickles, axes, spades, and plough shares are a few examples of significant tools. They could now plough difficult land thanks to these.

As agricultural output increased, people started to stay put in one location for longer periods of time, as opposed to moving around in search of food and water. The size of kingdoms also grew as a result. 

The king was now in need of money or taxes from the population to maintain his country. Farmers became the principal taxpayers because agriculture was one of the kingdom’s most productive industries. The monarchs used to encourage farmers by making arrangements for canals, wells, and tanks to boost farm output to increase the revenue from this field.

Iron Tools

The use of iron tools fundamentally altered human life. A new type of permanent community emerged with the large-scale production of tools. The provision of military equipment like iron swords and other weapons that were utilised by armies and soldiers for fighting wars and conflicts, not only changed agriculture but also established the groundwork for large kingdoms and empires. Since the idea of communities had begun to take hold, individuals had started to build their spheres of influence.

People, now, began establishing ties with other nations as well. The development of agriculture and the subsequent creation of surplus grain opened the door for thriving trades. Tools were traded for grain, which resulted in the growth of trade customs. Over time, as trade increased, coins started to be used in transactions. Numerous Roman coins have been discovered by archaeologists in India.

Summary

The discovery of iron altered the course of history. Its discovery was unexpected, but its expansion took centuries. The tribals of India carried the traditions from antiquity to the modern era. When the famous Damascus sword was being prepared with indigenous steel-making technology, India was the workshop of the entire world. The invention of the iron in some ways created the groundwork for a civilization that was more civilised. However, as with any historical event, there were ups and downs in India’s iron history due to a variety of internal and external factors.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1.How did Early Humans Discover Iron and use it for Tools?
Ans: Humans had figured out how to extract iron from rocks and turn them into implements made of iron. Iron was first discovered in rocks, or iron ore, which was melted at extremely high temperatures. The iron was heated and hammered while in contact with charcoal, resulting in the iron being stronger and more durable.

2.What Effects did the Iron Age have on Human Life?
Ans: The development of iron tools aided in making farming easier and more efficient. Farmers could plough tougher soil, allowing them to harvest new crops and free up time for more leisure activities. Throughout the Iron Age, new crop and livestock varieties were introduced at various times.

3. How did Early People’s lives Alter between the Bronze and Iron Ages?
Ans: Around 1200 BCE was the start of the Bronze Age. Tools from this era were constructed of bronze. Iron, which was more durable and powerful than bronze and so brought about the Iron Age, soon took its place.

Introduction

In the past, there have been numerous empires that included several kingdoms and were ruled by various dynasties. These three are connected on the one hand, while also having certain differences on the other. A dynasty can play a crucial role in both an empire and a kingdom. The terms “dynasty” and “empire” are more frequently used interchangeably, as in “Mughal empire or Mughal dynasty.” Similar to a kingdom, an empire is a state or nation governed by an emperor, respectively. Additionally, there are numerous ways in which these terminologies differ from one another.

What is an Empire?

An empire is a type of political system in which one state uses territorial conquests to expand and consolidate its dominance over a sizable territory while subjugating other states and nations, or a group of states and countries. An empire is often ruled by an emperor, however, there are instances in history where an empire has existed without a specific ruler. One such instance is the “British Empire” in India. In this approach, an empire is a group with a single sovereign authority and a centralised structure where the emperor had ultimate control. The idea of an empire’s emergence prepared the path for imperialism. In imperialism, nations dispatch a military expedition to other nations to build colonies.

What is a Dynasty?

A dynasty is a series of successive heads of the same family who rule over an empire or a kingdom. Primogeniture, or the idea that the eldest son of the king would inherit the throne, is typically the foundation of the succession process in dynasties. When a dynasty was deposed by members of another family or lineage, it came to an end. The dynasties are “hereditary,” meaning that rather than aptitude or skill, the powers are passed down through the generations depending on birth. The fact that a male is typically anticipated to ascend as the next monarch rather than a female shows how more “patriarchal” the idea of the dynasty was.

 What is a Kingdom?

A kingdom is a country or area that is governed by an absolute monarch (a king or queen), who makes decisions that affect the entire country. A kingdom may be a portion of an empire, where the emperor may delegate control of a particular territory to any of his kin. Multiple dynasties may succeed a single kingdom, although a kingdom cannot be exclusively connected with one dynasty. For administrative purposes, the kingdoms are further divided into provinces, where several officials are appointed and used to report to the monarch.

The idea of a kingdom originated in India during the later Vedic period, when janapadas, a tribal society, evolved into mahajanapadas and were eventually referred to as a kingdom. As numerous kingdoms began to compete for power, continual conflicts began.

What is the difference between an Empire, Dynasty and Kingdom?

Empire	Dynasty	Kingdoms
A political entity ruled by an emperor is an empire.	A succession of kings from the same family or bloodline is referred to as a “dynasty.”	A kingdom is a territory under a king or queen.
A wide area of land was made up of an empire. Even a few kingdoms could belong to an empire.	A dynasty has nothing to do with the geographic area. Rather a dynasty rules over a empire or kingdom.	The size of a kingdom might vary depending on its territorial scope.
Someone who may or may not be related to the ruler rules an empire.	Regardless of the circumstances, a dynasty is always made up of members of the same family.	A monarch may be chosen by the members of a certain key official and group or may inherit the throne from his or her family.

Examples-Ancient India

• The first indigenous empire of India, the Empire-Mauryan Empire, ruled over the whole Indian subcontinent from 321 BCE until 185 BCE. 
• The Gupta Empire, often known to rule during the Golden Age of Indian history, ruled over what is known as ancient India from the fourth to the sixth centuries BCE.
• Several dynasties, including the Nanda, Haryanka, Pandya, Pallava, Maurya, and Sunga dynasties, existed in ancient India. 
• Kingdom- Magadha was one of the illustrious kingdoms of prehistoric India.
• There were several other kingdoms present during the period, including Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala, Kuru, etc.

Summary

A political entity ruled by an emperor is an empire. A succession of kings from the same family or bloodline is referred to as a “dynasty.” A kingdom is a territory under a king or queen. The first indigenous empire of India, the Empire-Mauryan Empire, ruled over the entire Indian subcontinent from 321 BCE until 185 BCE. There were several other kingdoms present during the period, including Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala, Kuru, etc.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. Why was the Gupta Period called the Golden Age of India?

Ans. Economic prosperity and outstanding accomplishments in the fields of science, technology, art, architecture, literature, mathematics, religion, and philosophy were witnessed throughout this time. The Gupta era is therefore known as the “Golden Age” of Indian history.

2. Is there any Country in the World which is still Ruled by Kings and Queens?

Ans. Yes, there are 44 countries in the world which have a monarchial system of governance. Where a monarch is considered as the head of state. United Kingdom, UAE, are popular examples.

3. Do we have an Empire or Kingdom Existing in India Today?

Ans. No, there is no longer an empire or kingdom in India. Now that we have a democratic system of governance, those who labour for the general benefit of the populace directly or indirectly elect the nation’s leaders.

Introduction

One of the world’s most peaceful religions is Jainism, which originated in India. The Jain religion is well known for its strong dedication to non-violence and refraining from injuring any living thing. The word “Ji,” which means to conquer in ancient Sanskrit, is where Jainism got its start. According to Jain monks, enlightenment cannot be attained without letting go of all earthly passions and wants. People who achieve enlightenment become referred to as “Jina.” Between 500 and 600 BCE, in the Gangetic Plains, Jainism was born. It belonged to one of the numerous religious movements that emerged during that period. For Jains, enlightenment and breaking free from the cycle of life and death are the main goals.

Origin of Jainism

It is quite challenging to pinpoint the precise roots of Jainism. Rishabhnath is the first Tirthankara of Jainism, but it only gained popularity and became a fully recognized religion during the reign of Mahavir. The 24th Tirthankara of the Jains, Vardhman Mahavir, lived during the lifetime of Gautam Buddha. The Buddha was born into the Kshatriya family in a village close to Vaishali, Bihar. His mother Trishla was the sister of the Lichhavi monarch Chetak, while his father Siddhartha was the head of the Kshatriya tribe. 

At the age of 30, Mahavir left the family to look for the truth. He gave up all passion and desire, followed the austere path of solitude and meditation, and became an ascetic for 12 years. After the tribulation of 12 years, he acquired Kaivalya, which signifies omniscience. He has conquered both bliss and suffering. He travelled with his followers for the next 30 years, spreading the teachings of the Jain religion.

Causes of the rise of Jainism:

Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra were the four Varna. The hierarchy of society placed the Brahmans as the most powerful and pre-eminent Varna. They were given priestly responsibilities. The main causes of the rise of Jainism are as follows:

• The Kshatriya Varna’s resistance to Brahmanical rule was one of the primary factors. 
• The increasing ritualistic dominance of Brahman infuriated other Varna as well.
• Another element in the birth of the new religion was corruption inside pre-existing religions. 
• People’s discontent was also greatly influenced by language because Brahmans spoke Sanskrit, a language that the general populace did not know.

Teachings of Jainism

The non-violent Ahimsa principle is central to Jainism. They hold that the sole path to moksha, or unending emancipation, is through the soul’s purification. There are five doctrines of Jainism:

• Non-violence
• Do not lie
• Do not steal
• Do not stock unnecessarily
• Observe brahmacharya

Every Jain is required to adhere to these five precepts. Mahavira advised his disciples to live a rigorous life and even give up wearing clothing. In Jainism, three Triratnas can be used to achieve ultimate liberation. These are: 

• Through the right knowledge
• Through right faith
• Through right action

• The first level discusses the elements that make up the universe: 
  • The universe’s living soul is known as Jiva. 
  • The world’s non-living substance is ajiva.
• The universe’s behaviours are described in the second stage. 
  • Punya is a noble action. 
  • Papa, that was a poor act. 
• Karma in the universe is discussed in the third level. 
  • Through yoga and meditation, Asrava describes the influx of karma into the soul. 
  • Samvara is the halting of material karma from entering the soul. 
  • Simply said, bandha refers to the relationship between karma and the soul.
  • The final stage before achieving eternal liberty is called Nirjara. Nirjara is the act of giving up karma altogether. If someone wants to achieve moksha, they must give up their past deeds and refrain from creating new ones. 
• Complete soul emancipation and achieving moksha are the last stages. The end of the birth-and-death cycle.

Split in Jainism

About 200 years after Mahavir’s passing, north India was devastated by a severe famine. Twelve years passed during the severe famine. In search of better living conditions, people began to move. Many Jainas immigrated to south India with other individuals. Numerous pieces of evidence demonstrate how Jainism expanded throughout Karnataka at this time. The migrant Jainas insisted that they fully adhered to Jainism’s principles and teachings and that they never violated any vows. They stopped wearing garments and started being called Digambaras.

When the hunger was over, Digambaras returned to Magadha. They asserted that local Jainas had been distorted and that Jainas who had never left Magadha had broken the law and broken their vows. They were called Shvetambaras and wore white clothing. Jainism was split into the Digambara and Svetambara factions.

Facts about Jainism:

• In Jainism, there are no priests. There are solely nuns and monks there. 
• Like Buddhism, Jainism did not criticise the Varna system. 
• Jainism did not initially engage in idol worship or any other form of image worship. 
• The use of Prakrit gained popularity thanks to Jainism. 
• Jains always place a piece of cloth in front of their mouths to prevent unintentional organism inhalation.

Summary

The Jain religion is well known for its strong dedication to non-violence and refraining from injuring any living thing. Rishabhnath is the first Tirthankara of Jainism, but it only gained popularity and became a fully recognized religion during the reign of Mahavir. The non-violent Ahimsa principle is central to Jainism. Jainism did not initially engage in idol worship or any other form of image worship.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1.What was the main reason for Fewer Followers of Jainism?
Ans. The rigorous and stringent restrictions that had to be followed were one of many reasons why Jainism had fewer adherents. For instance, becoming a vegetarian and giving up all ties to the world, including family and clothing. Jainism also advises against farming since it can harm species that live underground.

2.How did Jainism spread in India?
Ans. To spread their religion, the various Jain sects split up and dispersed throughout India. Many caves and Jaina pilgrimage sites were constructed by Jaina kings. Jainism was also welcomed by the local populace because it had no caste system.

3.What are Agamas?
Ans. Jain Agamas are religious texts or literary works of Jainism. The number of Jain Agamas is 46. A Jain agama is a revelation from a Tirthankara.

4.What is the core belief of Jainism?
Ans. As far as possible, Jainism believes that to reach enlightenment, non-violence must be practised and harm to living beings reduced. Jains also believe in reincarnation, just like Hindus and Buddhists. Moreover, they believed that karma was responsible for this birth, rebirth, and death cycle.

5.How did Jainas migrate to South India?
Ans. It was predicted by Acharya Bhadrabahu that north India would suffer a twelve-year famine, so the Jain sangha migrated south. The Sangha stopped at Chandragiri Hill with his disciple Chandragupta Maurya.

Introduction

One of the earliest Upanishads, the Chhandogya Upanishad, has eight chapters. This Upanishad stressed several philosophical ideas, including awareness of virtue and evil, a connection to space, the cosmos as a whole, and unity with parmataman, among others. The lives of individuals started to alter at that point. 

In parallel, Buddhism was developing in ancient India, where Gautam Buddha was available to respond to their inquiries. He imparted knowledge about life’s secrets. He explained that difficulties and suffering are a natural part of life. The people’s unchecked desires are to blame for these issues. With time and the passage of life, this can be overcome. Man must show compassion and deference to all living things, including animals. There are numerous stories of individuals realising the truths that the Buddha wanted to impart to us. These tales are referred to as the Buddha’s Tale. One of the most well-known tales is about the wise beggar. We shall go into great detail about the story and its effects in this tutorial.

History in The Story

Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two saints who lived in the distant past. Both of them have practised meditation there before. They worshipped a divinity called Vāyu or a spirit god. He is also considered the god of the universe. People used to think that all living things are connected by a common deity. The saints bowed before the god and then sat down for their meal. Unexpectedly, a beggar approached the saints. He requested food from the saints. However, the saints weren’t ready to provide the beggar with food. The saint Shaunaka then instructed him to depart after declaring that they would not give him their food.

The beggar then enquired as to whom they were worshipping. The saint Abhipratarin then told the beggar that they revered Vāyu, a spirit god. According to the beggar, if they were worshipping a god of spirits, they should be aware that he was present throughout the entire universe. The saints responded by stating that they were aware that God’s spirit existed throughout the cosmos, and that this was why he was referred to as the universe’s creator. The beggar said, “If the god Vāyu is full of the entire world, then he is likewise full of the world. Thus, I am also a part of the universe.”  The saints claimed that the beggar told the truth. The beggar then asked the saints whether they were having a meal with him, implying that they were depriving the universe’s creator god of sustenance. The beggar’s message was clear to the saints. They understood that their choice was unwise. The two sages, Shaunaka and Abhipratarin, then decided to give the beggar some of their food.

The beggar organised his food with wisdom and confidence. With this conviction, the beggar persuaded two learned sages that their acts and sermonising were not the same. The lesson here is that words and actions must match when it comes to giving to the less fortunate. Everyone should practise kindness and share their food. Furthermore, personality is defined by traits like generosity, kindness, serving others, etc.

Learnings from Story

People began exploring information through theses, or statements of opinion, in the ancient world. Second, an objection is a response that disputes or challenges the argument. Third, the synthesis is referred to as the dialectical approach to information assessment. This chapter has shown us that a book cannot be used to locate information. The book also incorporates concepts from the human brain in its writing. Our brain’s knowledge and thoughts can help us deal with any scenario we face in life. The more you learn for yourself, the more you may discover about the world. A person with minimal education ages like a plough ox. His intelligence does not grow, but his flesh does. He was able to get food for the wise by acting like a clever beggar and using his cleverness.

Summary

From this story, we can conclude that it is better to put things into action in which we believe, rather than just merely believing and not practising. The beggar similarly taught two saints that if they trusted in the universal soul, the universal soul would assist the beggar in obtaining food.

Frequently Asked Questions

1.What are Upanishads?
Ans. Hindus have ancient religious works known as the Upanishads, which are a subset of the later Vedic literature. The name “Upanishad” literally translates to “sitting down,” alluding to the fact that during the Vedic period, students would sit next to their enlightened gurus under a tree to get an education.

2.What was the main Belief of these Upanishads?
Ans. The Upanishads include the ideas of thinkers who looked for solutions to philosophical problems. They believed the Universe to be made up of something enduring that even death could not destroy. This “permanence” was created by the union of the individual soul (atman) and the universal soul (Brahman).

3.Write a note on Chhandogya Upanishad.
Ans. One of the biggest Upanishadic compounds is the Chhandogya Upanishad, which comprises eight Prapathakas and several volumes and verses in each. The volumes contain a jumble of tales and subjects. Om’s melody, the substance of everything, language structure, and cosmic literature are all present in the first prapathaka.

4.What is Atma and Paramatma?
Ans. While Paramatma alludes to the absolute, Atma refers to the human soul. Atma is used to refer to the human soul in Vedantic philosophies, while Paramatma or Brahma is used to refer to the Absolute.

5.When were the Upanishads Written? Which is the First Upanishad?
Ans. From the fifth century BCE to the second century BCE, the Upanishads were written. Brihadaranyaka wrote the original Upanishad.

Introduction

During the period between 1500 BCE and 800 BCE, society underwent a number of notable changes and the world saw the rise of the Vedic culture. This time period is termed the Vedic age. Hinduism’s holy writings, the Vedas, were written during this time and are now the primary literary sources that provide an understanding of Vedic life.

Indo-Aryan Migration to Vedic Civilization

The arrival of Indo-Aryans on the Indian subcontinent marks the beginning of the Vedic era. These people are thought to have split off from the Indo-Iranian tribes and begun settling in the northern Indus Valley after the great Indus Valley civilization had collapsed. Some historians and archaeologists, however, contend that the Indo-Aryans were native to the Indian subcontinent and that the myth of their migratory origins is untrue. There is disagreement among many schools of thought regarding the Indo-Aryan people’s origin. Some claim that they are from Central Asia, while others suggest that they are from the Russian steppes.

Vedic Civilization 

The Vedic civilization was the second great civilization after the Indus valley civilization that inhabited the Indian subcontinent. This civilization grew and dominated the area of northwestern India during the time period between 1500 BCE to 800 BCE. The people of Vedic Civilization were called Aryans which means noble. These people were pastoral nomads. Cattle rearing was their main occupation during the early Vedic period and in the later Vedic period, agriculture became their main occupation. Apart from cattle rearing, the Vedic people carried out small-scale cultivation to supplement their food needs and also involved themselves in other economic activities like chariot-making, weaving, carpentry, tanning, etc. 

Life of people During the Vedic Period

The Vedic age is basically divided into two phases: The early Vedic Age and the Later Vedic Age. The significant changes in people’s social and cultural life during this time period led to such distinction.

Life of people during the Early Vedic period

Society

The Early Vedic era was characterized by patriarchal culture. The family served as the social unit, and the oldest male member served as the family head. The majority of the populace practiced monogamy, but the leaders occasionally practiced polygamy. Families related by blood formed the clan and clans together formed the Jana or tribe.

There was no caste system in early Vedic society since everyone was treated equally. Based on the people’s occupations, the population was classified into three groups. A person may pick any occupation, regardless of what his ancestors did for a living, and caste was then decided by occupation rather than birth.

Occupation

The Rigvedic age is another name for the early Vedic period. There are numerous indications throughout Rigveda that raising cattle was the Rigvedic people’s primary source of income.  The majority of people at this time were pastoralists. For milk and hides, they raised cattle, sheep, goats, and other animals.

Religion

The Vedic people revered the natural elements. The gods of the Vedic era were incarnations of natural elements. There were various gods who controlled the various needs of the civilization. For instance, warriors worshipped Indra, who was also considered a deity of the weather.

Life of people during the Later Vedic Period

Society and the Caste System

The caste system began to take hold during the later Vedic period when societal divisions changed. The four varnas Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras made up the society.

The Shudras were considered to be untouchables and were subject to slavery. The highest caste, the Brahmans, had access to perform Vedic rites. The caste system was made hereditary, preventing people from choosing the careers they wanted. In the later Vedic period, women’s status decreased and a number of limitations were placed on them. Despite the introduction of the combined family and Gotra concepts, the family nevertheless served as the foundation of society. Since members of the same gotra were blood relatives, marriages within the same gotra were not common.

In the later Vedic period, individuals began organizing themselves to establish towns, and urbanization became apparent. The kingship was inherited, hence the son of a monarch succeeded his father as ruler. The King’s power and authority were increased by an elaborate coronation ritual performed for him by the Brahmans, who were now regarded as the god’s representatives. Northern India witnessed the rise of the 16th Mahajanpadas during this time.

Occupation

Most of the later Vedic people were farmers, and at this time, farming was the people’s main source of income. 

Summary

The 1500–800 BCE era is referred to as the Vedic age. The Aryans were the inhabitants of the Vedic civilization. The early Vedic age and the later Vedic age are the two periods that comprise the Vedic age. 

Early Vedic civilization did not adhere to the caste system and valued individual equality. The society was patriarchal, yet women were respected, had freedom, and were permitted to attend social gatherings.

The caste system was prevalent during the later Vedic period and became hereditary. While the king was regarded as the divine representative, the Brahmans rose to prominence. Women’s status has greatly deteriorated. Shudras were considered untouchables and lived miserable lives.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Which texts in Vedic literature contain the Gayatri Mantra?
Ans: The Gayatri Mantra, which was written for Savitri, the sun goddess, is found in the third Mandal of the Rigveda.

2. What are the four Vedas?
Ans: Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda are the four Vedas.

3. Comment on the origin of Aryans.
Ans: The central Asian regions are said to be the origin of the Aryans. They are thought to have split off from the Indo-Iranian tribes and relocated to live in the Indus Valley’s northern parts.