Tag: History

Introduction

Numerous independent and semi-independent regional powers emerged as a result of the Mughal Empire’s decline. The Jats were agricultural settlers who lived in the areas surrounding Delhi, Agra, and Mathura. They were outraged by Aurangzeb’s repressive policies and began to rebel against the empire. Under the leadership of Gokul, one of the Tilpat zamindars, these revolts began in 1669. After some initial challenges, they were successful in creating the new Jat state of Bharatpur, which was led by Churaman and Badan Singh. Under Surajmal, this Jat state of Bharatpur attained its pinnacle. He not only established a productive government but also greatly increased the size of this empire. This state covered the areas from the Ganges in the east to Chambal in the south. Subas Agra, Mathura, Meerut, and Aligarh were also added to the state.

Expansion of Jat power (1680-1707)

There were many leaders of the farmer community, who raised their voices against the oppressive systems of the Mughals. This peasant group has several leaders who spoke out against the Mughals’ repressive regime. Brij Raj of Sinsini was one such ruler during the seventeenth century who joined up his forces with the other Jat rebels to form an alliance against Mustafa Khan, the faujdar of Agra. He was instrumental in bringing together the people who wished to refuse to pay the taxes demanded by the Mughal government. Even though the local faujdar had earlier promised to assist in this case, he ultimately decided to commit suicide alongside other villagers rather than pay the money. The faujdar Multafta Khan was ultimately conquered by Brij Raj after calling for a major fight with the faujdar’s army.

Raja Ram, the son of Bhajja Singh, was another great representative of the Jat caste (Brother of Brij Raj). By engaging in looting and plundering within the Mughal territory, he issued a severe challenge to the Mughals. He created a true standing army out of the Jat communities after learning from the failure of Gokula’s uprising. He understood how crucial it is to have a well-equipped army to combat the well-equipped armies of the Mughals. And to accomplish this, he began forming alliances with the chieftains of other Jat clans. For security, he even began constructing forts in the deepest parts of the jungle and started practicing guerrilla warfare techniques.

The northern region of the Mughal empire began to deteriorate when Aurangzeb was occupied fighting Marathas in Deccan. Jats recognized a benefit in this. To weaken the emperor’s hold over the undefended Mughal lands close to Agra, they began launching incursions there. They even attempted to raid Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra. They ultimately ran upon Abul Fazal, the local faujdar, who had defended Akbar’s tomb and the Mughals from this Jat invasion.

In 1688, Raja Ram returned to Sikandra, and this time he was successful in looting from Akbar’s grave. Aurangzeb was so outraged by the Jats‘ behavior that he despatched his grandson Bidar Khan to put an end to the Jat rebels. The Rajputs of Chauhan and Shekewat were engaged in conflict during the time. Raja Ram sided with Shekhawat, whereas Bidhar Khan sided with Chauhan. Raja Ram was killed in this combat in 1688 by a Mughal musketeer.

Prosperous agriculturalists

In the northwest of the Indian subcontinent, the Jats were the largest community (India and Pakistan). This community was made up of Indian Hindus and Sikhs.

They started as sheep and cattle herders, but eventually switched to farming as their primary activity. Due to the development of the Indus valley civilization, when people began settling down along the Indus River, the Jats likely became farmers due to this reason. Additionally, the Indus River supplied a rich area and sufficient water for farming. They began to rule the region between the two significant Mughal states of Delhi and Agra in the 1680s. Under their rule, the two significant states of Panipat and Bhallabhgarh developed into significant commercial hubs. Over time, this landowners’ community rose to prominence in different regions like Punjab, UP, Delhi, and Haryana.

Surajmal and the kingdom Bharatpur emerged as a strong state

The Jat community’s ongoing uprising against the oppressive Mughal rules eventually resulted in the establishment of Bharatpur as an independent Jat state under the leadership of SurajMal. Under the direction of Sadat Khan, the Mughals attempted to siege Bharatpur.

And one of the outposts was successfully captured by the Mughals. However, as soon as Raja Surajmal learned of this, he attacked them and trapped the Mughal camp. Later, Sadat Khan reached a settlement and left Bharatpur. Raja Suramal offered Chaudhari Charan Das protection in 1792 from Murtaza Khan (the governor of Faridabad) and the royal Farman was issued by the Mughals. Even one of the Rohilla nawab told Safdar Jang, (the Mughal grand wazir), that this Jat could not be vanquished. The Mughals took this counsel to heart and took no more action against the Jat. Faridabad was granted to Surajmal as Chaudary Charan das’ jagir. This strengthened the bonds between the Mughals and Jat.

When Ghazi-ud-din ousted Safdar Jang as grand wazir, he decided to seek revenge on Surajmal, this flared tension between Jats and Mughals once more.

He besieged the fort in 1754 with the assistance of Maratha. For three months, this siege went on. A Jat rani Kishori Bai requested their assistance and hence the Marathas were forced to assist the Jats in their fight against the Mughals.

As a result of Ahmed Shah Abdali besieging the fort of Dig and demanding a tribute that Surajmal was unable to pay, Surajmal then had to battle with Afghans. After a while, Abdali lifted the siege and left the region, but he returned in 1760 to besiege another Koli fort (modern-day Aligarh). After that, Suraj Mal once more decided to conquer Agra Fort to reclaim his power in the Doab region, and he managed to accomplish so. Surajmal eventually lost his life during a battle with Rohillas under Najib-ud-daulah. However, upon Surajmal’s passing in 1763, the Jat state started to crumble.

Summary

Several kingdoms attempted to declare their independence from the Mughal rule as the Mughals fell apart. One of them was the Jats, who were displeased and outraged by Aurangzeb’s anti-Hindu actions. The Jat communities began to rebel against these rules in the second half of the 17th century. All of these uprisings opened the stage for Badan Singh to build the Jat state of Bharatpur. Raja Surajmal deserves all the credit for uniting these Jat rebels and turning Bharatpur into a Jat stronghold. The Jat kingdom, however, started to fall once the powerful commander Suraj Mal passed away since none of his successors could manage the country as effectively as he had.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What and when did the Gokula Rebellion happen?Ans: Gokula Singh, a Jat zamindar of Tilpat, served as the head of the Gokula uprising in 1669. By withholding the extra land tax, he questioned the Mughal government’s authority.

2. Which of Aurangzeb’s measures offended the Jats‘ religious beliefs?
Ans: The Jat group was most outraged by Aurangzeb’s anti-Hindu religious agenda. He implemented several actions, including jizyah imposition, temple destruction, conversion to Islam, and religious persecution. The Jats became disgruntled as a result of Aurangzeb’s these actions.

3. Who was Sadat khan?
Ans: As the governor of Awadh, Sadat Khan, also known as Nizam-ul-Mulk, served. Later, as he fought alongside the Mughal emperor in the Deccan campaign against the Marathas, Aurangzeb bestowed upon him the title of “Khan Bahadur.” He was very well-known as the creator of the Awadh principality,

Introduction

Following the French Revolution, France’s political system changed from an absolute monarchy to a democratic republic. The establishment of the National Assembly, the Reign of Terror, and Directory rule all occurred during France’s republican period. September 1792 saw the founding of the first republic, France. This First Republic persisted until May 1804, when Napoleon Bonaparte ushered in the First Empire or Napoleonic France. After the declaration of the revolution, from 1792 until the present, France had five republics.

How France Became a republic

The anger against the Ancient Regime in French society grew when King Louis XVI assumed power, laying the groundwork for the French Revolution. The National Convention created a new constitution in 1791 as a result of this uprising, which limited the king’s authority by establishing a constitutional monarchy and securing citizens’ basic rights. With the monarch’s abdication in 1792, this constitutional monarchy likewise came to an end. After that, in 1792, the newly elected members of the National Assembly unanimously proclaimed France to be a republic, which led to the establishment of the French Republic.

The Jacobins took advantage of the political unrest to grab control of the National Convention, ushering in a period of terror that saw widespread killing and bloodshed throughout France. With the middle class seizing control and establishing the Directory government in France, this situation and the Jacobin republic came to an end in 1794. However, there were numerous disputes even during the directory rule, which led to the establishment of the French Consulate under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte as the First Consul. Napoleon later proclaimed himself the Emperor of France and ended the First French Republic to establish the First Empire.

Helping Factors

The despotic, autocratic monarchs were overthrown by the French Revolution, which also created new political and social structures based on the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The new form of governance was the democratic republic. The conditions were right for France to become a republic for several causes, and things happened:

• Replacement of the absolute monarchy with the Constitutional monarchy 
• End of the monarchy and the formation of the National Convention 
• Reign of Terror 
• Directory Rule

Replacement of the absolute monarchy with the Constitutional monarchy

The king’s concentrated power was reduced after the Revolution. In the new constitution that the National Assembly drafted in 1791, the parliament served as a check on the king’s authority. The legislative, the executive branch, and the judiciary now shared power. This system of government was known as a Constitutional monarchy.

End of the monarchy and the formation of the National Convention

Even though he ratified the constitution, King Louis XVI was not pleased with the reduction of his authority. He, therefore, began secret negotiations with world leaders who were likewise concerned about the progression of the French Revolution. As a result, the neighbouring nations of Austria and Prussia consented to assist him in putting down the uprising. In 1792, the National Assembly declared war on these nations after learning of King Louis’ and his allies’ plans.

The French revolutionaries recruited volunteers from many provinces to fight for the creation of popular supremacy by overthrowing the king and nobles. Massive destruction was caused by these revolutionary battles, especially for the common people. The Jacobins’ siege on the Tuileries Palace in 1792 resulted in the capture of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. On September 21, 1792, they held elections to choose the members of the new assembly, which became known as the National Convention. The constitutional monarchy came to an end as a result of this event, and France became a republic. The monarch and queen were later put to death in 1793.

Reign of Terror

The Jacobins took over as the dominant group when France was declared a republic. Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of this group, oversaw the harsh punishments and rule that began the reign of terror in France in the years 1793–1794. During this time, those who were thought to be republican and revolutionary foes were put to death. To maintain the Jacobins’ hegemony, he outlawed other political organizations. The “enemy” was beheaded using a contraption called a “guillotine.” The French people began to rebel against Robespierre’s rule as the leader of the Jacobin Club, which led to his execution.

Directory Rule

The more affluent middle class once again came into power when the Jacobin regime was overthrown. They drafted a new constitution, in which they once again restricted voting to members of the affluent class. This resulted in the establishment of two legislative councils. In addition, they established a Directory, a five-person executive body, to make decisions rather than consolidating authority in the hands of a single executive like the Jacobins. However, this division of authority among various organizations and departments led to regular disputes between the legislature and the directory.

Summary

Following the French Revolution, France had to undergo several political structure changes, including the overthrow of the absolute monarchy, initially led by King Louis XVI, the emergence of the constitutional monarchy, the Jacobin government, the Directory rule, and the ascension of Napoleon Bonaparte to the position of Emperor. The nobility lost its rights, and the society’s feudal framework was abolished.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What does ‘Republic’ mean?
Ans. “Republic” describes a state in which its residents directly or indirectly elect the state’s leader. The position of the head is also not inherited.

2. Why were people dissatisfied with the rule of King Louis XVI?
Ans. People were unsatisfied for numerous reasons during the reign of King Louis XVI: Since Louis XVI’s reign, France has spent a lot of money fighting wars in Europe. The royal treasury was burdened by the king’s extravagant lifestyle. The king had unchecked power and was not answerable to the people. The king increased taxes on the Third Estate because the economy was close to collapse.

3. Where was King Louis XVI executed?
Ans. King Louis XVI is put to death by guillotine in Paris’ Place de la Revolution, one day after the French National Convention found him guilty of conspiring with foreign powers and sentenced him to death.

Introduction

The discovery of iron led to a revolution in Indian agriculture. By the end of the Chalcolithic Age, the Indian subcontinent had been using iron for around 2500–3000 years. Now, during this time, the tools made of iron and steel were stronger and more efficient than those made of bronze. Manufacturing iron tools enhanced farming and contributed to a bigger economy.

The creation of iron farming implements greatly facilitated the agricultural process and contributed to a larger increase in farm produce. People were able to adapt to a stable existence at that time through commercial farming (trade between other nations) and subsistence farming, which helped people produce in huge amounts. Iron implements contributed to the prosperity of tiny kingdoms in a similar manner.

Indian Iron History from a Historical Perspective

In India, evidence of iron tools has been found in megalithic (big stone) burial sites. These sites in India comprised modern-day Karnataka and Kerala in the south, extended to some parts of central India and trans-Vindhyas. In many of these sites, the use of iron perhaps started by the end of the Neolithic and during the Chalcolithic age. 

Our Rig Veda and Yajur Veda contain references to the process of obtaining metal from ores. Iron was the third metal mentioned in Rig Vedic hymns, after gold and silver. Iron utilisation saw rapid development around 1400 BCE. Early evidence of iron smelting was thought to have been produced by tribal craftspeople in several places. 

Agriculture and the Iron

Agriculture underwent a turning point with the invention of iron. People have now begun to create powerful, long-lasting, and simple-to-form tools and weapons with this metal. 

This allowed them to create a compact, extremely sharp, and lightweight instrument that was challenging to craft out of stone or copper. Sickles, axes, spades, and plough shares are a few examples of significant tools. They could now plough difficult land thanks to these.

As agricultural output increased, people started to stay put in one location for longer periods of time, as opposed to moving around in search of food and water. The size of kingdoms also grew as a result. 

The king was now in need of money or taxes from the population to maintain his country. Farmers became the principal taxpayers because agriculture was one of the kingdom’s most productive industries. The monarchs used to encourage farmers by making arrangements for canals, wells, and tanks to boost farm output to increase the revenue from this field.

Iron Tools

The use of iron tools fundamentally altered human life. A new type of permanent community emerged with the large-scale production of tools. The provision of military equipment like iron swords and other weapons that were utilised by armies and soldiers for fighting wars and conflicts, not only changed agriculture but also established the groundwork for large kingdoms and empires. Since the idea of communities had begun to take hold, individuals had started to build their spheres of influence.

People, now, began establishing ties with other nations as well. The development of agriculture and the subsequent creation of surplus grain opened the door for thriving trades. Tools were traded for grain, which resulted in the growth of trade customs. Over time, as trade increased, coins started to be used in transactions. Numerous Roman coins have been discovered by archaeologists in India.

Summary

The discovery of iron altered the course of history. Its discovery was unexpected, but its expansion took centuries. The tribals of India carried the traditions from antiquity to the modern era. When the famous Damascus sword was being prepared with indigenous steel-making technology, India was the workshop of the entire world. The invention of the iron in some ways created the groundwork for a civilization that was more civilised. However, as with any historical event, there were ups and downs in India’s iron history due to a variety of internal and external factors.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1.How did Early Humans Discover Iron and use it for Tools?
Ans: Humans had figured out how to extract iron from rocks and turn them into implements made of iron. Iron was first discovered in rocks, or iron ore, which was melted at extremely high temperatures. The iron was heated and hammered while in contact with charcoal, resulting in the iron being stronger and more durable.

2.What Effects did the Iron Age have on Human Life?
Ans: The development of iron tools aided in making farming easier and more efficient. Farmers could plough tougher soil, allowing them to harvest new crops and free up time for more leisure activities. Throughout the Iron Age, new crop and livestock varieties were introduced at various times.

3. How did Early People’s lives Alter between the Bronze and Iron Ages?
Ans: Around 1200 BCE was the start of the Bronze Age. Tools from this era were constructed of bronze. Iron, which was more durable and powerful than bronze and so brought about the Iron Age, soon took its place.

Introduction

During the Mughal era, the Mughals established the idea of Watan jagirs, where Watan denotes the realms of the local kings in that region and jagir denotes the land gift. After repeated conflicts with the Mughals, these regional kingdoms, in a sense, recognized their suzerainty over them. Akbar, who understood the value of Rajput support in enabling him to consolidate and expand his kingdom, initiated this watan jagir policy throughout his rule. He, therefore, made an effort to win the Rajputs’ allegiance by putting the Watan Jagir philosophy into practice by providing them with important posts with lots of autonomy.

What is Watan Jagir?

The Rajputs remained the Mughals’ greatest obstacle to extending and establishing their empire during this time. Mughals devised the concept of Watan jagirs to address this. Even though the Mughal kings prevailed in the fight, they did not acquire the kingdom of the victorious ones under this system. Instead, the king of that particular region or province was permitted to continue ruling his kingdom as long as he was willing to submit to the Mughal emperor. According to this idea, a king continued to rule his kingdom while the Mughal emperor was in charge. These monarchs eventually received a significant amount of authority in their watan jagirs.

One of the intriguing things about this watan jagir was that it wasn’t hereditary, so if the king of a watan jagir dies, his successor won’t get the entire watan; instead, the portion of it will be given to him by his mansab. The Mughals used to exert authority over Rajput monarchs in this manner.

How did Watan Jagirs rise under Rajputs

Gaining the respect and confidence of the Rajputs was crucial for the Mughals to grow their empire. As a result, the Mughals made an effort to win the support of the Rajputs by deepening their relations with them, giving them important positions in the government and army, adopting non-interference policies in their internal matters, and giving them watan jagirs. Rajput-Mughal ties were well-managed before Shajahn’s rule, but things started to deteriorate after Aurangzeb assumed the throne of the Mughals. And this started to worry both the Mughal elite and the Rajput kings.

Although Watan Jagir was first implemented by Akbar, it was effectively entrenched under Jahangir’s rule. Rajput’s rajas of Amber and Jodhpur, for example, received great autonomy to rule their watan. Some of these Rajput rajas provided the Mughals with steadfast service. They received outside jagirs (the nearby ones) or subas as payment for their service, in addition to their watan jagirs. The Subedari of Gujarat and Malwa were greeted by Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur, and the Subedari of Malwa was held with Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber.

As Mughal power waned, these Rajput monarchs began expanding their domains by conquering the regions surrounding their watans, which were portions of imperial or Mughal lands. The Rajputs of Jodhpur’s conquest of Nagpur and Amber‘s takeover of Bundi are two instances of this type of expansion.

Roles and Duties

• Chiefs from the Rajput tribe held important positions in the Mughal era. Raja Todarmal, Birbal, Man Singh, and other significant Rajputs from the Mughal government and army are a few noteworthy instances. 
• During Akbar’s rule, Raja Todarmal was in charge of the revenue administration. In the area of revenue administration, he made changes. As a result, the entire revenue structure he created was known as “Todar Mal’s Bandobast.” 
• Birbal, the emperor’s principal advisor and the head of the Mughal army, was another significant Rajput in Akbar’s court. Another significant general in the Mughal army was Raja Man Singh.

Rise and Decline

• The Mughal-Rajput relations were badly harmed by Aurangzeb’s accession to the throne since his predecessors had done a great job of maintaining them because they understood how significant the Rajputs’ assistance was to the expansion of their empire. 
• The policies of Aurangzeb underwent numerous revisions. The ‘watan jagirs’ territories granted to Rajput kings were taken away, they were denied crucial positions, and the government began meddling in their internal and religious issues. 
• These were all offences by the Rajputs. They then began planning an attack on the Mughals. Rajputs began to lose prominence in this way.
• At the same time, Rajputs and Mughals were being overthrown by Marathas, who had begun to take control of the position. Thus, the Rajput influence as well as the subsequent Mughals came to an end, and the Maratha confederacy emerged in India.

Summary

Due to a pressing political need for two of the major governing elites of northern India to strengthen their positions, Mughal-Rajput relations emerged during the sixteenth century. The allocation of watan jagirs to Rajput rulers with some authority was a significant step toward this arrangement. These Rajput kings gradually began expanding their watan jagirs by annexing the surrounding lands. But as the empire continued to grow, this partnership began to experience problems by the seventeenth century. Both the collapse of the Rajputs and the declaration of the independent regional kingdom were facilitated by internal strife among the Rajputs. In the end, the dominance of the Mughal-Rajput ties faced a significant threat from the advent of the Maratha.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

 1.Who were the Rajputs?
Ans. The Kshatriya clan of the Varna system gave rise to the Rajputs. These Rajputs were primarily warriors who participated in conflicts and battles. They are responsible for the area’s defence.

2. How did Aurangzeb’s religious policy offend the Rajputs?
Ans. Since the Rajput kings were all Hindu, Aurangzeb sought to convert all of India to Islam. He conducted numerous actions against Hindus to achieve this purpose, including the imposition of Jaziyah, the destruction of temples and idols, and discriminatory tolls for Hindu traders. The Rajput kings were upset by all of these actions, and they began to lose faith in the Mughals.

3. What were the revenue reforms known as Todarmal Bandobast?
Ans. A tool called a jarib was used to measure the land. According to its quality, the land was split into good, intermediate, and terrible areas. One of the goods had a fixed revenue over ten years. The collection of taxes had to be done kindly. The payment was cancelled in the event of a natural calamity.