Tag: French Revolution

Introduction

Along with the abolition of feudalism in France, the French Revolution brought about several changes to the country’s social and governmental structures. The tyrannical authority of the monarchy in France came to an end during the Revolution in the early 1790s. The virtues of liberty, equality, and freedom propelled the idea of constitutional monarchy, where the constitution served as a check on the king’s power.

The National Assembly’s recognition kept a balance of authority between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. In the end, the Revolution succeeded in shifting sovereignty from the king or National Assembly to the people, resulting in the establishment of France as a democratic republic.

Life in France after the Revolution

Post-revolution, the life of the French changed drastically. Following were the changes observed-

• The First and Second Estates’ privileges were abolished during the French Revolution, which also put an end to the monarchy. With this, the Third Estate’s capitalists seized control and established a government based on the principles of liberty, fraternity, and equality. But there were some internal and external conflicts that the new government had to face.
• The Jacobins, a radical political organization, took advantage of the internal strife at the National Convention to seize control and institute several radical reforms.
• Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of the Jacobins, declared a “Reign of Terror” from 1793 to 1794. People were executed during this time period because they were “enemies” of the revolution.
• His adversaries included the clergy, the aristocracy, and even some members of his party who didn’t share his viewpoints. The authoritarian rule of the Jacobins did not last long, with the execution of Robespierre.
• After the collapse of the Jacobin administration, the well-off middle class took control and chose to create a new constitution with authority granted to the Directory and the Legislative Council.
• The legislative councils and the directory frequently disagreed with each other. This political unrest paved the way for Napoleon Bonaparte, a military dictator who expanded the French empire to much of Europe and certain regions of Africa.

Restructuring Administration

Due to the constant unrest in the French government, an entire restructuring of the administration was required. This was done in the following ways-

• The National Assembly created a new administration to foster national integration through local autonomy.
• The country was divided into 83 departments under the new government, and these departments were further divided into several provinces, districts, cantons, villages, etc. The Assembly attempted to decentralize authority through this division by allowing residents of these departments to decide their local representatives.
• The National Assembly dissolved the judicial system of the previous Regime as part of the new administrative changes, and restructured the legal system.
• The revolutionaries established a criminal court in each department and a civil court in each district. The justice of the peace in each district took the place of the feudal system of justice.
• The revolutionary administration tried to increase everyone’s access to the legal system, regardless of background or class, in this fashion.
• In addition, the revolutionaries adhered to the egalitarian concept in the field of trade and commerce.
• Laissez-faire policy, which advocates little government intervention, served as the Assembly’s guidance as it allowed for individual initiative in the economy despite customary practices and barriers. Landowners and peasants were free to grow anything on their lands.

Social Structure of France after the French Revolution

The social structure post-revolution was the following-

• The French Revolution essentially abolished the ranking privileges based on the three Estates that were part of the feudal society.
• The upper middle class gained influence once privileges for the aristocracy and clergy were abolished.
• It was prioritized to uphold the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The notion that all men are born free and have equal rights led to the establishment of a social order based on equality for everyone.
• Even after the revolution, women’s status in France remained the same despite having an equitable society. As a result, women began to demand a status in society that is equal to that of their male counterparts.
• Women initially had to deal with disappointment, but over time, the revolutionary government made significant reforms to improve women’s status. However, it took women nearly 200 years to get the right to vote.

Summary

One of the most notable moments in European history was the French Revolution. It led to several reforms in France’s social and political spheres. Following the revolution, France saw a restructuring that culminated in the fall of the Ancient Regime, the end of feudalism and the loss of privileges for the upper class. Emphasis was given towards the welfare of the common man. The reforms established post-revolutionary period favoured women and put an end to enslavement. The French-initiated wave of nationalist movements began to spread to other parts of the world.

 

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Who was Napoleon Bonaparte?

Ans: Napoleon Bonaparte was a capable military commander. Due to his impressive military strategies, he advanced from the rank of soldier to General during the French Revolution. French citizens who were tired of the Directory’s ineffective leadership were praising him as a hero. He eliminated the Directory and proclaimed himself First Consul. The French Revolution came to an end with this, and the Napoleonic era began. He declared himself the emperor of France in 1804.

2. What are the three Estates in eighteenth-century French society classified as?

Ans: The French society of the eighteenth century was divided into three groups, known as “Estates”:

• The clergy is a member of the First Estate.
• The Second Estate was made up of nobles or aristocracy.
• The middle class, thinkers, businesspeople, employees, artisans, and peasants made up the Third Estate.

3. Who were the members of the National Assembly? Why did it develop?

Ans: The third estate members thought that the voting in the Estates-General meeting should be done individually and, not, a single vote per estate. They were denied their voting rights in that meeting. Thus, the Revolution began on June 17, 1789, when the National Assembly came into existence. The members of this assembly were the third estate people which included, the middle class, businessmen, farmers, peasants etc.

Introduction

A fundamental shift in the established social and political system brought about by the actions of a group of disaffected members of society is referred to as a revolution.  The sociopolitical system in France was thought to be the root of the problems. This framework was unbalanced, in favour of the upper two estates of society and gave the king absolute power, but denied the common people any basic rights. In the end, the dissatisfied segment of society (third estate) began retaliating against the ruling class, which sparked the French Revolution in 1789.

Reasons for French Revolution

There were many reasons for the French Revolution to take place, some of which are mentioned below-

• Unequal Social Order

French civilization was feudal and had three “Estates”. The first and second estates in France were privileged elites and landowners, but they did not pay any taxes,  instead lived at the cost of the third estate. The third estate was the largest community in French society, still they were denied the right to political representation, even though they were subjected to the full weight of taxation. The vast majority of people hence became unhappy and, as a result, caused the French Revolution.

• Rise to Middle Class

Some members of the Third Estate became wealthy as a result of the growth of international trade and business and were referred to as the Middle Class. In addition to professionals and intellectuals, this class also comprised businessmen and industrialists. Although this middle class was influential economically, they were excluded from political representation since they belonged to the third estate. This infuriated them because they believed that a person’s place in society should be determined by his merits rather than any privileges.

• Philosophers and Revolutionary ideas

The writings of eighteenth-century philosophers like Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau sparked a revolutionary spirit among the French people, especially the educated middle class. They challenged the clergy and members of the church for having excessive power and influence. Philosophers published their thoughts in books and newspapers, which spread the options of liberty and equality among the middle class and led to the French Revolution.

• Economic Crisis 

By the second part of the eighteenth century, the French economy was in trouble. The demand for food grains increased as a result of France’s growing population. On the other side, the inability to produce enough food due to famines and droughts increased the cost of goods.

The French exchequer was also already worn down by supporting the opulent lifestyles of King Louis XVI and his wife, as well as the corrupt government officials. Loan providers began requesting payment of funds with a 10% interest rate. The only way to pay off this debt was to raise taxes on the third estate, which brought anger to that estate and propelled the thought of revolution.

• Autocratic Monarchy and corrupt Administration

People were obliged to start the revolution in France as a result of the monarchy and the government’s combined failure. The monarch insisted that he had the power to rule by divine right and that ordinary people had no place in the decision-making process. And the king gave little thought to the well-being of his subjects, and the corrupt and self-centred royal administrators were more focused on lining their wallets rather than thinking of the benefit of the commoners. People did not trust the governing system and hence led to the revolution.

• Influence of the American Revolution

The French people were motivated to rebel against the unfair control of their nation’s absolute monarchy by the achievement of the Americans in freeing themselves from British domination. Even a few military generals from France took part in the American War of Independence. They brought revolutionary ideas with them when they returned to France, urging people to fight for their rights. This led to the French Revolution.

Summary

The word ‘revolution’ refers to a change in the established social and political structure due to the efforts of the neglected section of society. France’s sociopolitical landscape during the French Revolution of 1789 was completely disrupted by the members of the Third Estate. The existing population was unhappy for a variety of reasons such as inequality, economic crisis, autocratic monarchy etc. which led to the start of the revolution in 1789. This revolution not only affected French society and politics but also impacted the trajectory of human history.

Frequently Asked Questions 

Q1. How did the Third Estate respond to the circumstances in France at the time?
Ans: The third estate rejected the voting system that gave each state one vote, during May 1789’s Estate General’s meeting regarding France’s financial issues. They wanted the voting based on the number of members. Hence, they took revolutionary action by declaring themselves a National Assembly to ensure their representation, which launched the Revolution in June 1789.

Q2. What do you mean when you say that kingship has a divine right?
Ans: The idea that the monarch’s authority to reign comes directly from God’s will, not through the approval of the population, is known as the “divine right of kingship.”

Q3. What historical changes resulted from the French Revolution?
Ans: The French Revolution not only changed the sociopolitical landscape of France, but it also served as an inspiration for many other nations to defend their national interests. In the end, it helped to foster a sense of national awareness that opened the way for national movements around the world.

Introduction

In European history, the French Revolution was a revolutionary movement that brought about profound societal and political changes. The role that women played in the revolution was amazing. Women’s participation was only allowed in the domestic sphere before the Revolution or during its early years. They all desired, though, to air their concerns and political beliefs and take part in public life like men. In addition to their responsibilities to their families, women were drawn to the idea of equality and fraternity. Through various forms of action, women gradually began to unite and demand equal rights. They wanted to be in control of their destiny and would not accept being treated as passive second-class citizens.

Traditional Duties of Women

• Before the French Revolution began in the eighteenth century, women were viewed as second-class citizens. They were not given any political rights or a recognized role in society.
• Men made all the significant decisions on their behalf. Before they got married, their fathers made decisions for them. After being married, their husbands made all of their decisions.
• Even the enlightenment-era progressive writers were opposed to women’s political rights. No property rights of any kind were granted to women.
• They were still viewed as purely sexual beings, which made them very distinct from their male counterparts and perfectly suited for domestic settings.
• Although third estate women were not allowed to receive a formal education, they continued to labor in tailoring shops, laundries, or as maids in the homes of the wealthy to make a living.
• Before the revolution began, women from the upper class participated in gatherings called salons to explore novel concepts regarding education, individual rights, and other social issues.
• Like their male counterparts, French aristocrats or ministers, they had the benefit of receiving a formal education and were regarded as intellectuals. Although, they still lacked the legal authority to engage in public life.

Revolutionary Activism of Women

Many of these women from various social strata rushed to the streets to express their rage once the uprising began, capitalizing on the tumultuous political climate.

Women’s March

In 1792, many women marched in a parade carrying weapons through the Legislative Assembly’s chambers and onto the Tuileries Gardens before arriving at the Monarch’s home after learning that the King was planning a counter-revolution. The high cost of cereals and the scarcity of bread had thousands of women in an uproar. At the infamous Women’s March on Versailles, which drew more than 60,000 women, the demands of feminist revolutionaries Théroigne de Méricourt and Pauline Leon for women’s full citizenship and the economic crisis were interwoven. Nevertheless, the call for women to be granted citizenship was ignored.

Newspapers and Social Groups

Whatever the circumstances, women could not be barred from participating in public life during a revolution. The French Revolution also had a large element of individual women’s revolutionary participation. A periodical published by Nicolas de Condorcet supported the call for women’s political rights. A group called Cercle Social was eventually founded by this publication to promote equal rights for women in marriage and education. It was led by a Dutchwoman named Etta Palm d’Aelders.

Activism through Writing

Through their writings, women writers also expressed their discontent. To prove that the government had been depriving women of rights since the dawn of time, Olympe de Gouges issued a document in 1791 called “Declaration of the Rights of Woman” that used language and a structure similar to the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.” She paid a terrible price for her advocacy by being put to death by the guillotine.

Political Organization of Women

Women’s revolutionary activism extended beyond simple street protests and demonstration planning. To show their unwavering support for the Republic, Leon, and her ally Claire Lacombe founded the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women in 1793. They did this by donning tricolored symbols, protesting the high price of bread, stockpiling grains, and eventually bringing down the price increase. When their demands were not met, they quickly turned to riot, looting stores, grabbing food that had been hoarded, and kidnapping police officers.

Banning and Execution of Women Activists

The men in the revolution, meanwhile, were against women’s equal rights. The Revolutionary Republican Women were being demonized as dangerous agitators while they were ruling the Jacobins. The ladies were sent home to look for their children and homes. Men reminded them that women were made by nature to bear and raise children. They cannot acquire citizenship rights. Their proper setting is the home, while men belong in the public sphere. Political power can only be used by men. Most of the female activists who were punished suffered detention, arrest, execution, or exile.

Summary

Women played a spectacular and important role in the French Revolution. Participating in the revolution were women from every social group and class. By taking part in the protest, speaking out about economic difficulties, founding political clubs to demand their rights, publishing newspapers, and creating plays, women exposed how they were being denied their rights. Women actively participated in the revolution despite knowing the outcome of their activity. Women gained the rights to education, marriage consent, and divorce with the establishment of the Revolutionary government.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Who were the Jacobins?
Ans. Members of the political group known as the Jacobin Club were known as Jacobins. It was a well-known club during the French Revolution and a revolutionary political organization. They adhered to the constitution, which protected natural rights and upheld human rights.

2. Who killed the Jacobin leader Jean-Paul Marat? Why?
Ans. On July 13, 1793, Charlotte Corday assassinated Jean-Paul Marat, the leader of the Jacobins. The publication “The Friend of the People,” published by the Jacobin leader Jean-Paul Marat, severely criticized those who questioned the Revolution’s shift toward violence, threats, and other forms of aggressiveness.

3. Who was Marie Antoinette? What was her role in Monarchical rule in France?
Ans. After marrying King Louis XVI of France, Marie Antoinette assumed the role of queen of France. Because of her opposition to progressive reform ideas, Marie Antoinette became notorious among the French populace. Her popularity is thought to have contributed significantly to the French monarchy’s downfall.

Introduction

Following the French Revolution, France’s political system changed from an absolute monarchy to a democratic republic. The establishment of the National Assembly, the Reign of Terror, and Directory rule all occurred during France’s republican period. September 1792 saw the founding of the first republic, France. This First Republic persisted until May 1804, when Napoleon Bonaparte ushered in the First Empire or Napoleonic France. After the declaration of the revolution, from 1792 until the present, France had five republics.

How France Became a republic

The anger against the Ancient Regime in French society grew when King Louis XVI assumed power, laying the groundwork for the French Revolution. The National Convention created a new constitution in 1791 as a result of this uprising, which limited the king’s authority by establishing a constitutional monarchy and securing citizens’ basic rights. With the monarch’s abdication in 1792, this constitutional monarchy likewise came to an end. After that, in 1792, the newly elected members of the National Assembly unanimously proclaimed France to be a republic, which led to the establishment of the French Republic.

The Jacobins took advantage of the political unrest to grab control of the National Convention, ushering in a period of terror that saw widespread killing and bloodshed throughout France. With the middle class seizing control and establishing the Directory government in France, this situation and the Jacobin republic came to an end in 1794. However, there were numerous disputes even during the directory rule, which led to the establishment of the French Consulate under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte as the First Consul. Napoleon later proclaimed himself the Emperor of France and ended the First French Republic to establish the First Empire.

Helping Factors

The despotic, autocratic monarchs were overthrown by the French Revolution, which also created new political and social structures based on the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The new form of governance was the democratic republic. The conditions were right for France to become a republic for several causes, and things happened:

• Replacement of the absolute monarchy with the Constitutional monarchy 
• End of the monarchy and the formation of the National Convention 
• Reign of Terror 
• Directory Rule

Replacement of the absolute monarchy with the Constitutional monarchy

The king’s concentrated power was reduced after the Revolution. In the new constitution that the National Assembly drafted in 1791, the parliament served as a check on the king’s authority. The legislative, the executive branch, and the judiciary now shared power. This system of government was known as a Constitutional monarchy.

End of the monarchy and the formation of the National Convention

Even though he ratified the constitution, King Louis XVI was not pleased with the reduction of his authority. He, therefore, began secret negotiations with world leaders who were likewise concerned about the progression of the French Revolution. As a result, the neighbouring nations of Austria and Prussia consented to assist him in putting down the uprising. In 1792, the National Assembly declared war on these nations after learning of King Louis’ and his allies’ plans.

The French revolutionaries recruited volunteers from many provinces to fight for the creation of popular supremacy by overthrowing the king and nobles. Massive destruction was caused by these revolutionary battles, especially for the common people. The Jacobins’ siege on the Tuileries Palace in 1792 resulted in the capture of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. On September 21, 1792, they held elections to choose the members of the new assembly, which became known as the National Convention. The constitutional monarchy came to an end as a result of this event, and France became a republic. The monarch and queen were later put to death in 1793.

Reign of Terror

The Jacobins took over as the dominant group when France was declared a republic. Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of this group, oversaw the harsh punishments and rule that began the reign of terror in France in the years 1793–1794. During this time, those who were thought to be republican and revolutionary foes were put to death. To maintain the Jacobins’ hegemony, he outlawed other political organizations. The “enemy” was beheaded using a contraption called a “guillotine.” The French people began to rebel against Robespierre’s rule as the leader of the Jacobin Club, which led to his execution.

Directory Rule

The more affluent middle class once again came into power when the Jacobin regime was overthrown. They drafted a new constitution, in which they once again restricted voting to members of the affluent class. This resulted in the establishment of two legislative councils. In addition, they established a Directory, a five-person executive body, to make decisions rather than consolidating authority in the hands of a single executive like the Jacobins. However, this division of authority among various organizations and departments led to regular disputes between the legislature and the directory.

Summary

Following the French Revolution, France had to undergo several political structure changes, including the overthrow of the absolute monarchy, initially led by King Louis XVI, the emergence of the constitutional monarchy, the Jacobin government, the Directory rule, and the ascension of Napoleon Bonaparte to the position of Emperor. The nobility lost its rights, and the society’s feudal framework was abolished.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What does ‘Republic’ mean?
Ans. “Republic” describes a state in which its residents directly or indirectly elect the state’s leader. The position of the head is also not inherited.

2. Why were people dissatisfied with the rule of King Louis XVI?
Ans. People were unsatisfied for numerous reasons during the reign of King Louis XVI: Since Louis XVI’s reign, France has spent a lot of money fighting wars in Europe. The royal treasury was burdened by the king’s extravagant lifestyle. The king had unchecked power and was not answerable to the people. The king increased taxes on the Third Estate because the economy was close to collapse.

3. Where was King Louis XVI executed?
Ans. King Louis XVI is put to death by guillotine in Paris’ Place de la Revolution, one day after the French National Convention found him guilty of conspiring with foreign powers and sentenced him to death.

Introduction

The late 18th century in France was a period of turmoil and hardship in society. People were constantly protesting against the reigning monarch Louis XVI, the working class and peasantry were becoming increasingly unhappy, the society was experiencing an economic crisis, people were protesting for their rights etc. On July 14, 1789, people started opposing the monarch violently, as the rumour was spread that the king had instructed the soldiers to fire on protesters. They made a military of 7000 people and stormed the state fortress jail, the Bastille, looking for ammunition. They destroyed government buildings and other facilities. This was the beginning of the French Revolution.

Society during 18th century France

French society is divided into 3 classes,

• The first class-which comprises clergy and wealthy people.
• The second class-which comprises noblemen.
• The third-class -comprises the other remaining society which includes all people, from merchants, businessmen, small peasants, servants etc.
• Both the upper classes had all the privileges while the third class played for their privileges and lived in poverty, with a lack of food and political recognition.
• With the population growth, the amount of food started falling short. And due to bad harvest, there was a severe scarcity of food. This led to fights between people for food and other resources.
• Due to the shortage of grains, the prices of the available food grains were increased to a great extent and as a result, the people of the third-class experienced food scarcity even more.
• The social conditions during the 18th century were very bad and hence were one of the reasons for the French Revolution to take place.

The outbreak of the revolution

The outbreak of the revolution took place in the following way-

• The controller general of finances, Charles de Calonne, organized the assembly of nobles in February 1787 to discuss the increase in tax to eliminate the budget deficit. He proposed the privileged class should be taxed, but the assembly rejected that proposal.
• The monarch convened the assembly of estate generals on May 5, 1789. The clergy, the noble estate, sent 300 representatives, while 600 individuals were sent by the third estate which had to assemble in the back of the room.
• In this assembly, each estate had one vote to give despite the number of individuals. The third estate wanted that each member should get the right to vote in the assembly. This demand of the third class was not accepted, and hence they walked out of the assembly.
• The representatives of the Third State then gathered on June 20 in the Versailles Hall where they proclaimed themselves to be the national assembly with the mission of drafting the French constitution to restrain the monarch’s authority. The first estates also joined hands with the third estate and the national constituent assembly was formed.
• In October, the assembly was introduced to restrict the powers of the king and distribute them amongst different institutions.
• The national assembly was indirectly elected and granted the authority to enact laws. Men over 25 who paid taxes were given the ability to vote.
• Although the king had signed the constitution, he secretly negotiated with the king of Prussia and other neighbouring rulers to send the troops to end the national assembly, but before it could happen the national assembly itself declared war on Austria and Prussia in 1792.
• Later that year, the assembly reassembled and decided to arrest the royal family.
• As part of the reforms, all men over 21 were now permitted to vote, regardless of their income.
• Following the election, the national assembly changed into the national convention, which on September 21, 1792, declared France to be a republic and dissolved the monarchy.

Summary

One of the most significant historical occurrences was the French Revolution. It was a struggle between the common people and France’s autocratic ruler. It was the first time that individuals battled for freedom and liberty. All subsequent revolutions were greatly impacted by the French Revolution, which marked a turning point in the struggle for liberty.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What exactly were tithes?
Ans: The church collected tithes as a form of interest tax. Tithes included one-tenth of the agricultural output.

2. Which club did the Jacobins belong to?
Ans: The Jacobins Club was an underground organization made up of regular people during the French Revolution that was instrumental in overthrowing the monarchy in 1792. This group included small peasants, shopkeepers, laborers etc.

3. Why did the enraged mob storm the Bastille?
Ans: An enraged mob broke into the Bastille early on July 14, 1789, and destroyed the structure because it was a symbol of the monarch’s repressive and tyrannical rule.