Category: Social Studies

Introduction

The Khalji dynasty reigned during the height of the Delhi sultanate, and Allaudin Khalji was credited with most of its accomplishments. He united the entire Indian subcontinent under his reign and was the most powerful sultan of the Delhi sultanate. After slaying his father-in-law Jalaluddin Khalji, the founder of the dynasty, Alauddin Khalji ascended to the throne in 1296. In 1320, the Ghiiyasuddin Tughluq overthrew the Khalji dynasty and established the Tughlaq dynasty. Later, Mohammad Tughluq oversaw the growth of the Sultanate.

Consolidation under Khalji Dynasty

Due to internal strife among the noles, Jalaluddin, the first king of the Khalji dynasty, was unable to extend his territory. He had a brief six-year reign during which he spent time stabilising and legitimising his position and power. Alauddin Khalji, Jalaluddin’s son-in-law, killed him, took the throne for himself, and proclaimed himself the ruler of the Delhi sultanate.

The Delhi Sultanate reached its pinnacle under Alauddin Khalji. Alauddin’s first trip was to Gujrat in 1299. This was his first foray into new territory. He stole the wealth and appointed Alp Khan governor. He continued his westward expansion by attacking Malwa in 1305 and winning a bloody struggle to take the fort of Mandu. He seized control of Chittor, Mewar, and Ranthambore as well as all of western India. Alauddin extended his hegemony into southern India. Wherever he triumphed, he appointed his trusted nobles as administrators.

Administration under the Khalji Dynasty:

The kings of the Khalji people appointed their military leaders as governors and gave them authority over their territory. These territories were referred to as “Iqta” and the owners as “Iqtadar” or “Muqti.” Iqtadars were required to support the king militarily and uphold law and order in their region. Iqtadar received a wage from the money their territories generated. Three different tax types existed. The first tax was imposed on the “kharaj” portion of the crop, followed by a tax on cattle and a third tax on horses. Throughout Alauddin Khalji’s reign, numerous administrative changes were made.

• The empire was divided into provinces, and there were 11 provinces under Alauddin Khan.
• Alauddin established a sizable standing army to defend the country from Mongol intrusion.
• For his troops, Alauddin built the garrison town of Siri.
• He also levied taxes in the Ganga Yamuna doab region to pay for the rations of his soldiers. He set the prices for goods in Delhi; government employees were assigned to monitor this, and those who failed to sell at the set price faced consequences.
• The first emperor to pay his troops in cash was Alauddin. Alauddin had managed the market price so that it stayed constant even during the Mongol invasion.

Consolidation under Tughlaq Dynasty:

The Deccan Sultanate’s rule was not unbreakable; with the death of Alauddin, the southern provinces rose up and gained their independence. The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty, Ghyisuddin Tughluq, was made aware of this. During the brief period of his administration, Ghiyasuddin was unable to subjugate the south to the Delhi sultanate. After assuming power, Mohammad bin Tughluq concentrated his effort on the south. He organised numerous military operations and seized control of a sizable portion of the South.

He went on to Mabar in the south. He conquered Bengal in the east, which had declared itself independent because of its separation from the Delhi sultanate and the difficulty of maintaining administration and consolidation at such a distance.

Mohammad Tughluq organised a number of far north and northwest missions. After suffering a severe defeat in Tibet with his troops, he planned the Qurachi expedition but later abandoned it. The Delhi Sultanate’s largest domain belonged to Mohammad Tughluq, and this contributed to the sultanate’s demise.

Administration under Tughlaq Dynasty:

The Tughlaq dynasty preserved the empire while carrying out the majority of Khalji’s administrative principles. Nobles were given the authority to collect taxes from their iqta as part of the tradition of iqta. Bandagan continued to be appointed as governor and military commander under Tughlaqs. Specially trained slaves called bandagan were loyal only to the King. Some rules imposed by the king were highly controversial. He appointed gardeners, cooks, and wine distillers to high administrative posts at once. The noles were harshly critical of the ruler’s unorthodox methods.

• To stop the Mongols from capturing their empire, Mohammad established a powerful standing army.
• His victory over the Mongol invasion. Instead of building a new garrison town for the army, he dispersed its population to Daulatabad and stationed his soldiers in an old Delhi neighbourhood.
• Taxes were raised to provide for the troops.
• People started to feel unsatisfied as a result.
• At the same period, north India had a famine.
• His attempt at token currency, which was made of cheap metal and was simple to reproduce, failed horribly.
• Taxes were paid with token money, and gold was kept.

Summary

The Khalji and Tughlaq dynasties represented the height of the Delhi sultanate. The Khalji monarch Alauddin implemented strict laws and regulations to manage his enormous realm. He was an astute administrator who worked hard to keep Delhi’s commodity prices stable. The Tughlaq dynasty inherited Khalji’s administrative and expansionist objectives. Mohammad Tuhghluq, the most well-known king of Tughlaq, introduced many radically new administrative reforms and conducted numerous policy experiments. Unfortunately, he had short-sighted policies and was a hasty and irritable ruler, which led to the slow decline of his kingdom.

Frequently Asked Questions

1.What were Muqtis’ Responsibilities?
Ans. Muqties were required to uphold peace and order in their iqtas as well as provide the emperor with military support. Muqties were permitted to deduct taxes from his iqta in exchange for their services.

2.Who were the Chieftains?
Ans. Chieftains were another name for Samanta nobility. They were wealthy landowners who lived in the countryside, and the empire brought them under its control and taxed them.

3.What is Accurate in terms of Governance and Unification under the Khaljis and Tughlaqs?
Ans. Even though these dynasties ruled over the majority of the Indian subcontinent, most of the interior remained independent. The hardest part of managing all the provinces was the distance, and remote areas like Bengal were tough to manage.

Introduction

Human desires are not constrained in any way. People are driven by lust, avarice, and rage. There is an Ashram system in place to help us overcome all the negative aspects of our lives. Since ancient times, the Ashram system has existed throughout India. They held the view that the ashram system enables a man to live a happy, healthy life. Moreover, by adhering to the Ashram system, one can acquire spiritual understanding, education, and life principles.

What is An Ashram? 

One of the facets of the Hindu notion of Dharma is the Ashrama system. It is also a component of the ethical theories found in Indian philosophy, where it is connected to the Purusartha, or four proper human life aims, including satisfaction, happiness, and spiritual emancipation. The individual lifespan was split into four phases under the Ashram system. The individual’s fulfilment and growth were each period’s main objectives.

Learn More about The System of Ashram. Check out more videos in Class 6th Social Science Lessons

How Does An Ashram Work? 

The four guiding principles for ashram operations are Dharma, Artha, Kama, and finally Moksha. These four principles are the only ones that guide a person throughout their entire existence. Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha all refer to virtue, riches, willingness, and liberation respectively. To attain the purpose of life, order is crucial. First, there is Dharma, which fulfils the definition of the term. In various life circumstances, this life principle functions in a distinct way. The source of all human values, it is.

The second tenet is that Artha represents prosperous accomplishments. Achievements might include developing skills, habits, and moral principles for living. Therefore, attaining artha necessitates a moderate level of motivation. It alludes to the notions shaped by societal conditioning and influencing personal desire. Such cultural conceptions vary in their profundity and tenacity. Because they are shared by a huge number of individuals within the community, which endures even as individuals come and go, they are more expansive and long-lasting than personal goals. Therefore, attaining Artha necessitates a moderate level of motivation.

The third principle is the Kama, which represents people’s openness to receiving anything. Each person has different desires. Time and experience both have the power to lessen or manage it. The Kama Principle is the ideal illustration for inspiring someone.

Bringing a man to Moksha is the ultimate objective of the Ashram system. It means that people are free. The existence of desires is non-existent. People are not affected by the things that harm their bodily and emotional well-being. There is only knowledge and spirituality, and nothing else. All ashrams, though, employ spiritual doctrine.

Importance of An Ashram in Ancient Indian Society 

When entering a new stage of life, people prepare themselves by taking a break in an ashram. It was very important in controlling how ancient people lived. According to the Ashrams’ idea, four stages of life are classified in antiquity.

Significance of Brahmacharya

The beginning of life is referred to as Brahmacharya. Through the ceremony of upanayana, a child enters the cycle of Ashrams of life phases and is regarded as a reborn kid. The ceremony will be performed by a boy who is eight years old. Children are educated about the Vedas, Indian customs, and several disciplines during this period. Ashram’s goal is to help people develop their personalities.

Significance of Grihastha

In this era of life, a boy transitions from childhood into adolescence. He got married and started a family. However, they must serve the public, which necessitates both them and the birds and animals.

Significance of Vanaprastha

At the age of fifty, Vanaprashta, the following stage of life, begins. At this point, he must depart from both the village and his family. He has to go to the wilderness by himself to meditate. This is the method for purifying the soul.

Significance of Sannyasa

After the vanaprastha occurred at the age of 75, the ultimate stage of life began. At this point, one forgets about all ties to the outside world and serves God.

Education in Ashrams

The optimum location for learning is an ashram, as was previously discussed. A child studies the Vedas and spirituality, starting at the level of Brahmacharya. He then discovers how to get rid of cravings of life. In the instance of Grihastha, he learns to shoulder both his family’s responsibilities and his obligation to assist the entire world. In the Vanaprastha stage, a person serves not only the world but also the younger generations by passing on knowledge and wisdom. He learns to give his life to God in the Sannyasi stage and begins working for God. Additionally, he learns to let go of his tie to his family and the cosmos.

Summary

The Ashram system is the foundation of Indian history and culture. A person’s mental and physical development is greatly aided by the ashram. The objectives of ashrams, however, are currently at odds with the way of life of the younger generations. People neglect to fulfil their obligations to both the nation and the rest of society. Without understanding life stages, a person cannot function in society or experience inner happiness. Therefore, there is a need to swiftly raise awareness of ashrams among the current generation.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What is taught through an Ashram?
Ans. A person’s personality grows in an ashram, and his spirit becomes serene and pure. Additionally, yoga and other forms of physical exercise as well as Indian cultural ideals are taught in an ashram.

2. Which of the Ashrams is nowadays performed by the people?
Ans. The current generation’s primary goals are to settle down and get married. Therefore, everyone today performs on the Grihastha stage of Ashrams.

3. What is the main target of life to be achieved by the system of Ashrams?
Ans. One aspect of Hinduism’s Dharma concept is the Ashrama system. Additionally, it is a part of Indian philosophy’s ethical beliefs, where it is paired with the four legitimate aims of Purushartha, which are fulfilment, happiness, and spiritual liberation.

4. How many types of Ashrams are there in our life?
Ans. The beginning of life is referred to as Brahmacharya. In this stage of life, a boy transitions from childhood into adolescence, gets married and starts a family. This period is called grihastha. At the age of fifty, Vanaprashta, the next stage of life, begins. After the vanaprastha occurred at the age of 75, the ultimate stage of life, sannyasa, begin.

Introduction

Buddha established the sangha for his followers. The sangha’s original purpose was to provide a way for practitioners who wanted to commit to full-time, rigorous penance. People who desired to devote their lives to Buddha and his teachings joined the sangha. The sangha’s monks and commoners would travel around while Buddha preached his teachings. In a ceremony, those who joined the sangha had their heads shaved to symbolize their renunciation of this life.

                                                      

What is Sangha?

Sangha is simply a Buddhist social structure. Monks, nuns, regular men, women, and kids can be part of the Sangha. The sangha’s members claim to be genuine disciples of Buddha. Sangha has two meanings. One is a group of people who left their homes, desires for their families, and passions to adhere to the stringent and rigorous manner of the Buddha’s teaching. They adhere to tight rules and shave their heads to symbolize renunciation.

Sangha also has a second meaning that is connected to the Buddha. Buddha’s devotees would seek refuge with him and travel with him wherever he went. Men, women, and kids who would accompany Buddha on his journey were referred to as members of this sangha. The vows of celibacy, scarcity, and faith had to be taken by everyone who wanted to enter the sangha.

Importance of Sangha: 

The sangha gained significance for devotees of the Buddha in a variety of ways: 

• Buddhism is promoted by monks and laymen who joined the sangha after it was formed. 
• They travel everywhere and share the Buddha’s teachings. 
• People who joined the sangha had to leave their homes and families, thus for them, their community served as a place of belonging and support. 
• They would frequently get together and recite Buddhist prayers and teachings.
• The rising popularity of yoga and meditation can be attributed to the sangha, a group of monks who practice both disciplines together and spread their influence wherever they go.

Buddhism is typically thought of as a solitary and isolated religion. The individual practices meditation and looks for happiness on his own. However, the Buddhist idea of sangha is the exact opposite of solitude; it asserts to create a community where everyone works toward pleasure together. The Buddha’s followers are given a sense of security and hope, and they all share the same objective.

Ancient Social Life and Sangha:

• The ancient Indian society was divided into Varnas or sections such as Brahaman, the most dominant and powerful section, Kshatriya, the warrior class, Vaishya, the merchant class, and Sudra, the labour class.
• Due to the sangha’s egalitarian culture, it rose to popularity. In the sangha, there was no varna system because Buddhism strongly disapproved of it. 
• People of lower castes became equal as a result of their adoption of Buddhism. The sangha evolved into a group of equals who lived in peace and adhered to the way and teachings of the Buddha.

Buddha and Sangha

When Buddha was alive, he used to travel from place to place, teaching others, and his followers would accompany him wherever he went. Men, women, and children of all ages gathered around Buddha. The Sangha was the name given to this group of devoted Buddhist adherents who accompanied the Buddha on his journey for enlightenment, abandoning all wants and their homes in the process. This tradition persisted even after his passing, and the sangha developed into the centre of Buddhism. For Buddhism to become a religion of secular principles, the sangha was essential.

The sangha allowed participation in spreading Buddhism to each of those who sincerely adhered to the Buddha’s teachings. Sangha established a framework within which the average person might pursue his goals and follow his customs. The support of kings like Ashoka, who adopted Buddhism and spread it over the globe, played another role in the growth of Buddhism.

Summary

Buddha established the Sangha for his followers. The Sangha is simply a Buddhist social structure. Monks, nuns, regular men, women, and kids are all present.  Buddhism is promoted by monks and laypeople who joined the sangha after it was formed. In the sangha, there was no varna system because Buddhism strongly disapproved of it. For Buddhism to become a religion of secular principles, the sangha was essential.

Frequently Asked Questions

1.What is the Eightfold Policy in Buddhism?
Ans. The eightfold policy of the Buddha leads to emancipation and, eventually, Nirvana. The eight ways are the right speech, the right resolution, the right vision, the right effort, the right lifestyle, the right mindfulness, and the right samadhi.

2.What is Triratna?
Ans. A Buddhist symbol, Triratna, or the Triple Jewel (Dhamma, Buddha, and Sangha), is believed to visually represent the three jewels of Buddhism. In addition to a lotus flower within a circle, the Triratna symbol is also composed of a trisula or trident with three branches and a vajra, or diamond rod.

3.What are the Four Noble Truths in Buddhism?
Ans. The four great truths are:

• Suffering
• Desire is the root of suffering
• Suffering will stop when desire ceases
• There is a way out of desire and suffering.

4.What did Buddha do After Attaining Enlightenment?
Ans. Buddha initially travelled to Sarnath to give a lecture after attaining enlightenment. After that, he travelled around to share his knowledge and his religion.

5.Who Could not Join the Sangha?
Ans. Although anyone might join the sangha, there were a few limitations. The masters had to provide their consent for the slaves to join the sangha because they were unable to do it on their own. Parents had to permit their children, and husbands had to permit their wives.

Introduction

One of the world’s most peaceful religions is Jainism, which originated in India. The Jain religion is well known for its strong dedication to non-violence and refraining from injuring any living thing. The word “Ji,” which means to conquer in ancient Sanskrit, is where Jainism got its start. According to Jain monks, enlightenment cannot be attained without letting go of all earthly passions and wants. People who achieve enlightenment become referred to as “Jina.” Between 500 and 600 BCE, in the Gangetic Plains, Jainism was born. It belonged to one of the numerous religious movements that emerged during that period. For Jains, enlightenment and breaking free from the cycle of life and death are the main goals.

Origin of Jainism

It is quite challenging to pinpoint the precise roots of Jainism. Rishabhnath is the first Tirthankara of Jainism, but it only gained popularity and became a fully recognized religion during the reign of Mahavir. The 24th Tirthankara of the Jains, Vardhman Mahavir, lived during the lifetime of Gautam Buddha. The Buddha was born into the Kshatriya family in a village close to Vaishali, Bihar. His mother Trishla was the sister of the Lichhavi monarch Chetak, while his father Siddhartha was the head of the Kshatriya tribe. 

At the age of 30, Mahavir left the family to look for the truth. He gave up all passion and desire, followed the austere path of solitude and meditation, and became an ascetic for 12 years. After the tribulation of 12 years, he acquired Kaivalya, which signifies omniscience. He has conquered both bliss and suffering. He travelled with his followers for the next 30 years, spreading the teachings of the Jain religion.

Causes of the rise of Jainism:

Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra were the four Varna. The hierarchy of society placed the Brahmans as the most powerful and pre-eminent Varna. They were given priestly responsibilities. The main causes of the rise of Jainism are as follows:

• The Kshatriya Varna’s resistance to Brahmanical rule was one of the primary factors. 
• The increasing ritualistic dominance of Brahman infuriated other Varna as well.
• Another element in the birth of the new religion was corruption inside pre-existing religions. 
• People’s discontent was also greatly influenced by language because Brahmans spoke Sanskrit, a language that the general populace did not know.

Teachings of Jainism

The non-violent Ahimsa principle is central to Jainism. They hold that the sole path to moksha, or unending emancipation, is through the soul’s purification. There are five doctrines of Jainism:

• Non-violence
• Do not lie
• Do not steal
• Do not stock unnecessarily
• Observe brahmacharya

Every Jain is required to adhere to these five precepts. Mahavira advised his disciples to live a rigorous life and even give up wearing clothing. In Jainism, three Triratnas can be used to achieve ultimate liberation. These are: 

• Through the right knowledge
• Through right faith
• Through right action

• The first level discusses the elements that make up the universe: 
  • The universe’s living soul is known as Jiva. 
  • The world’s non-living substance is ajiva.
• The universe’s behaviours are described in the second stage. 
  • Punya is a noble action. 
  • Papa, that was a poor act. 
• Karma in the universe is discussed in the third level. 
  • Through yoga and meditation, Asrava describes the influx of karma into the soul. 
  • Samvara is the halting of material karma from entering the soul. 
  • Simply said, bandha refers to the relationship between karma and the soul.
  • The final stage before achieving eternal liberty is called Nirjara. Nirjara is the act of giving up karma altogether. If someone wants to achieve moksha, they must give up their past deeds and refrain from creating new ones. 
• Complete soul emancipation and achieving moksha are the last stages. The end of the birth-and-death cycle.

Split in Jainism

About 200 years after Mahavir’s passing, north India was devastated by a severe famine. Twelve years passed during the severe famine. In search of better living conditions, people began to move. Many Jainas immigrated to south India with other individuals. Numerous pieces of evidence demonstrate how Jainism expanded throughout Karnataka at this time. The migrant Jainas insisted that they fully adhered to Jainism’s principles and teachings and that they never violated any vows. They stopped wearing garments and started being called Digambaras.

When the hunger was over, Digambaras returned to Magadha. They asserted that local Jainas had been distorted and that Jainas who had never left Magadha had broken the law and broken their vows. They were called Shvetambaras and wore white clothing. Jainism was split into the Digambara and Svetambara factions.

Facts about Jainism:

• In Jainism, there are no priests. There are solely nuns and monks there. 
• Like Buddhism, Jainism did not criticise the Varna system. 
• Jainism did not initially engage in idol worship or any other form of image worship. 
• The use of Prakrit gained popularity thanks to Jainism. 
• Jains always place a piece of cloth in front of their mouths to prevent unintentional organism inhalation.

Summary

The Jain religion is well known for its strong dedication to non-violence and refraining from injuring any living thing. Rishabhnath is the first Tirthankara of Jainism, but it only gained popularity and became a fully recognized religion during the reign of Mahavir. The non-violent Ahimsa principle is central to Jainism. Jainism did not initially engage in idol worship or any other form of image worship.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1.What was the main reason for Fewer Followers of Jainism?
Ans. The rigorous and stringent restrictions that had to be followed were one of many reasons why Jainism had fewer adherents. For instance, becoming a vegetarian and giving up all ties to the world, including family and clothing. Jainism also advises against farming since it can harm species that live underground.

2.How did Jainism spread in India?
Ans. To spread their religion, the various Jain sects split up and dispersed throughout India. Many caves and Jaina pilgrimage sites were constructed by Jaina kings. Jainism was also welcomed by the local populace because it had no caste system.

3.What are Agamas?
Ans. Jain Agamas are religious texts or literary works of Jainism. The number of Jain Agamas is 46. A Jain agama is a revelation from a Tirthankara.

4.What is the core belief of Jainism?
Ans. As far as possible, Jainism believes that to reach enlightenment, non-violence must be practised and harm to living beings reduced. Jains also believe in reincarnation, just like Hindus and Buddhists. Moreover, they believed that karma was responsible for this birth, rebirth, and death cycle.

5.How did Jainas migrate to South India?
Ans. It was predicted by Acharya Bhadrabahu that north India would suffer a twelve-year famine, so the Jain sangha migrated south. The Sangha stopped at Chandragiri Hill with his disciple Chandragupta Maurya.

Introduction

One of the earliest Upanishads, the Chhandogya Upanishad, has eight chapters. This Upanishad stressed several philosophical ideas, including awareness of virtue and evil, a connection to space, the cosmos as a whole, and unity with parmataman, among others. The lives of individuals started to alter at that point. 

In parallel, Buddhism was developing in ancient India, where Gautam Buddha was available to respond to their inquiries. He imparted knowledge about life’s secrets. He explained that difficulties and suffering are a natural part of life. The people’s unchecked desires are to blame for these issues. With time and the passage of life, this can be overcome. Man must show compassion and deference to all living things, including animals. There are numerous stories of individuals realising the truths that the Buddha wanted to impart to us. These tales are referred to as the Buddha’s Tale. One of the most well-known tales is about the wise beggar. We shall go into great detail about the story and its effects in this tutorial.

History in The Story

Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two saints who lived in the distant past. Both of them have practised meditation there before. They worshipped a divinity called Vāyu or a spirit god. He is also considered the god of the universe. People used to think that all living things are connected by a common deity. The saints bowed before the god and then sat down for their meal. Unexpectedly, a beggar approached the saints. He requested food from the saints. However, the saints weren’t ready to provide the beggar with food. The saint Shaunaka then instructed him to depart after declaring that they would not give him their food.

The beggar then enquired as to whom they were worshipping. The saint Abhipratarin then told the beggar that they revered Vāyu, a spirit god. According to the beggar, if they were worshipping a god of spirits, they should be aware that he was present throughout the entire universe. The saints responded by stating that they were aware that God’s spirit existed throughout the cosmos, and that this was why he was referred to as the universe’s creator. The beggar said, “If the god Vāyu is full of the entire world, then he is likewise full of the world. Thus, I am also a part of the universe.”  The saints claimed that the beggar told the truth. The beggar then asked the saints whether they were having a meal with him, implying that they were depriving the universe’s creator god of sustenance. The beggar’s message was clear to the saints. They understood that their choice was unwise. The two sages, Shaunaka and Abhipratarin, then decided to give the beggar some of their food.

The beggar organised his food with wisdom and confidence. With this conviction, the beggar persuaded two learned sages that their acts and sermonising were not the same. The lesson here is that words and actions must match when it comes to giving to the less fortunate. Everyone should practise kindness and share their food. Furthermore, personality is defined by traits like generosity, kindness, serving others, etc.

Learnings from Story

People began exploring information through theses, or statements of opinion, in the ancient world. Second, an objection is a response that disputes or challenges the argument. Third, the synthesis is referred to as the dialectical approach to information assessment. This chapter has shown us that a book cannot be used to locate information. The book also incorporates concepts from the human brain in its writing. Our brain’s knowledge and thoughts can help us deal with any scenario we face in life. The more you learn for yourself, the more you may discover about the world. A person with minimal education ages like a plough ox. His intelligence does not grow, but his flesh does. He was able to get food for the wise by acting like a clever beggar and using his cleverness.

Summary

From this story, we can conclude that it is better to put things into action in which we believe, rather than just merely believing and not practising. The beggar similarly taught two saints that if they trusted in the universal soul, the universal soul would assist the beggar in obtaining food.

Frequently Asked Questions

1.What are Upanishads?
Ans. Hindus have ancient religious works known as the Upanishads, which are a subset of the later Vedic literature. The name “Upanishad” literally translates to “sitting down,” alluding to the fact that during the Vedic period, students would sit next to their enlightened gurus under a tree to get an education.

2.What was the main Belief of these Upanishads?
Ans. The Upanishads include the ideas of thinkers who looked for solutions to philosophical problems. They believed the Universe to be made up of something enduring that even death could not destroy. This “permanence” was created by the union of the individual soul (atman) and the universal soul (Brahman).

3.Write a note on Chhandogya Upanishad.
Ans. One of the biggest Upanishadic compounds is the Chhandogya Upanishad, which comprises eight Prapathakas and several volumes and verses in each. The volumes contain a jumble of tales and subjects. Om’s melody, the substance of everything, language structure, and cosmic literature are all present in the first prapathaka.

4.What is Atma and Paramatma?
Ans. While Paramatma alludes to the absolute, Atma refers to the human soul. Atma is used to refer to the human soul in Vedantic philosophies, while Paramatma or Brahma is used to refer to the Absolute.

5.When were the Upanishads Written? Which is the First Upanishad?
Ans. From the fifth century BCE to the second century BCE, the Upanishads were written. Brihadaranyaka wrote the original Upanishad.

Introduction 

Indian philosophy encompasses the countless, unending intellectual traditions that developed on the Indian subcontinent across various epochs. Its origins cannot be pinpointed to a specific time period, but rather date back to endless antiquity. Origin of philosophies takes place, from these three stages- Pre-logic, Logic, and Ultra-Logic.

• The pre-logic spans both the pre-and post-Mauryan eras.
• The logic period begins from the Kushans to the Gupta period.
• The dawn of the ultra-logic span began in India when India coincided with the advent of imperialism and the western philosophies of utilitarianism, idealism, and empiricism.

Indian Philosophy 

Hindu philosophy, also known as Indian philosophy,  looks for the way to salvation and the meaning of life. The concepts of Karma and moksha, or freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth, were central to all Indian philosophy. There were two groups of philosophers here- 

• Ashthika– which follows conventional philosophical ideas and regards the Vedas as the main source of knowledge. It has two primary branches, Atheistic (which denies the existence of a God) and Theistic (which believes in the existence of a God). Six Indian philosophical schools made up the Ashthika school of thought. They were Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa, Uttara Mimamsa, or Vedanta.
• Nastika– Disregarded the authority of the Vedas as the fundamental source of knowledge. The three branches of the Nashthika school of philosophy are Charvaka, Jainism, and Buddhism (the school of materialism).

Schools of Philosophy 

The schools of philosophy which made up the Ashthika school of thought comprise 6 schools. They are as follows- 

• Samkhya

It is one of the oldest philosophical traditions and was given by Kapila Muni. It holds that two components, Purusha (consciousness or soul) and Prakriti (nature and matter) are the sources of all things in the universe. Despite being the earliest school of thinking, it was formed on logical and scientific principles. These thinkers held that nature, instead of the soul or Purusha, was responsible for the world’s creation; but, by the fourth century A.D., they started giving equal importance to the Purusha in the creation of the universe. Because Samkhya combined both the materialism and spiritualistic aspects in the creation of the world, it was also known as dualistic philosophy. The Samkhya philosophy serves as the theoretical foundation for the Yoga school of thinking.

• Yoga

Yoga is the application of the Samkhya theory. This school of thought was established by the sage Patanjali. According to this theory, nirvana can be attained by mastering the body, mind, and sense organs. Ashtanga yoga, which consists of various asanas and breathing exercises, can help one achieve this nirvana. In this instance, God is viewed as a mentor or teacher rather than a creator.

• Nyaya

The Nyaya, whose literal meaning is “justice,” was another logical, scientific school of philosophy. This idea was put forth by Gautam Muni. This philosophy is based on parmana or pratyaksha pramana, or proof. It emphasizes that anything should be accepted based on logic and personal experience. Nyaya states that accurate knowledge can be obtained through inference, comparison, perception, and testimony.

• Vaisheshika

The Vaisheshik philosophy is founded on metaphysical theory, which emphasizes that everything in the universe may be broken down into atoms, or parmanu.

It was put forth by the wise Kanada. It recognized just two paths to accurate knowledge: pratyakṣa (perception) and anumāṇa (inference). It resembles a naturalistic and objective philosophy of the cosmos in which each atom in the universe is given significance.

• Purva Mimamsa

The wise man Jaimini founded this school of thought. It discusses the significance of mantras and yajnas in maintaining the cosmos. In a sense, it acknowledged the Vedas’ supreme authority, where adherence to their teachings can lead to the route to nirvana. It also says that studying the Vedas is a reliable way to learn and gain knowledge.

• Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta

The founder of this philosophical system was Badarayana. The Upanishadic section of the Vedas serves as the foundation for Vedanta philosophy, which places a strong emphasis on the Brahma Gyan. Advaita by Adi Shankara, Visishtadvaita by Ramanuja, Dvaita by Madhvacharya, Dvaitadvaita by Nimbarka, Shuddhadvaita by Vallabhacharya, and Achintya Bheda Abheda by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu are the six divisions of the Vedanta philosophy.

Effects of Indian Philosophy on Society 

Indian philosophy had a great impact on society.

• They provided a variety of perspectives regarding the world or the universe.
• Although these six schools of philosophy had different roads, they all pointed toward the same direction of nirvana or liberation.
• These philosophies were founded on the ideas of metaphysics, religion, logic, and epistemology.
• Indian philosophy gave the people the ability to think rationally, because people now began seeking the logic or justification for everything rather than just accepting it, based on blind faith.
• To be liberated from the afflictions of the world, these ideologies stressed the significance of self-realization and made society more logical.

Summary 

Indian philosophical systems have developed millions of years ago and since then were responsible for shaping the community. The Hindu philosophy gave maximum importance to obtaining nirvana, or ultimate salvation. This can be obtained through various paths, which they named schools of philosophy. The 6 schools of philosophy were Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa, Uttara Mimamsa, or Vedanta. All these Indian philosophical systems had the same goal: to make society and the people dwelling in it stronger

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Describe Charvaka.
Ans: Chravaka belonged to the Nashthika philosophical tradition. It stressed that there is no other world and that death marks the end of human life. In addition to this, they also believe in materialism.

2. What are the various yoga Techniques under Ashtanga Yoga?
Ans: Ashtanga yoga includes- Yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharna, dhyana, and Samadhi. These yoga techniques help in keeping command over the mind, body, and sense organs.

3. Jainism is considered a Nastika Philosophy. Explain.
Ans: Nastika is primarily a philosophy that rejects the notion of a deity.

Similar to this, Jainism rejected the significance of god, placing ‘Jina’ higher than god. This philosophy was primarily founded on the following three ideas: correct belief, proper knowledge, and right behaviour.

4. What was Buddhist Philosophy?
Ans: Between the severe ritualism of Hinduism and the extreme asceticism of Jainism, Buddhism offers a middle way. This philosophy also gives importance to logical thinking and reasons instead of blind faith.

Introduction 

A significant Mahajanapada that existed between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE was Vajji. Its political system, in which kings were chosen by the populace rather than by hereditary succession, is what makes it special. The Vajjis had a republican system of governance at that time when the majority of the kingdoms were run by autocrats. There were eight distinct clans in the confederation. The Videhas, Lichhavis, Jantrikas, and Kshatrikas were the most popular of them. And the Gana-sanghas was the name of the political party in Vajji. One of the strong rulers of Magadha, Ajatshatru, later conquered the capital of this Mahajanapada.

Capital of Vajji

Among the sixteen Mahajanapadas, the Vajji occupied an important position due to its social and political arrangements. Some of these arrangements are as follows: 

• There was a democratic type of government system at that time in the Vajji K, which was a significant Mahajanapada then.
• By rejecting the Vedic philosophy of the Varna system, the kingdom was able to achieve greater unity and equality among the people. 
• As opposed to Magadha, the republican society was stratified into two parts: royalty (Kshatriyas) and slaves (Dasa-Karmakar’s).
• The capital of Vajji, Vaishali, was surrounded by strong fortifications, protecting it against enemy attacks.

Peculiarities of Vajji

• The most significant feature about Vajji is that it was the first republican state in history to be located in India. 
• Its political system was based on the “Gana-Sanghas” system. A group of rulers chosen by the entire populace made up the Gana-sangha. 
• The sangha’s members were each given the title of king. Together, they carried out all rites and participated in assemblies to discuss and vote on issues affecting the welfare of the state.
• These assemblies were closed off to women and slaves. 
• Vajji’s status as a Gana-Sanghas persisted for a long time before the Gupta emperors conquered the state. 
• This Mahajanapada included both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. Even in Buddhist scriptures, we can find data concerning the operation of Gana sanghas.

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Gautama Buddha and the Magadha-Vajji War

The influence of Gautam Buddha in the Magadha-Vajji battle is a topic of debate. Even though Buddha often shied away from social and political matters, it is thought that King Ajatshatru dispatched his minister to consult with Buddha. Buddha explained to him the seven noble truths, which made Vajj a powerful kingdom that was challenging to subdue. Buddha intended to avert the conflict between Vajjia and Magadha in this manner. However, Ajarshatru utilized the Buddha’s guidance and discovered a strategy to overthrow the Vajji empire.

Magadha – Vajji War and the Consequences 

Between 484 and 468 BCE, a conflict between the Magadha and Vajji kingdoms erupted. This conflict pitted the Licchavis confederation of Vajji against the Haryanka dynasty of Magadha. It was rumoured that a town close to the Ganges river was home to a diamond mine. The Licchavis of Vajji and the ruler Ajatashatru were about to split that equally. However, Ajatashatru fell short of the goal, and the Vajjian people assumed full responsibility. As Ajatashatru grew restless, he reasoned that it would be impossible to battle the entire Vaishali at once. He, therefore, decided to act first by dissolving the unity of the Vajji kingdom’s Gana-sanghas.

To learn how to vanquish the Vaishali, he sent his minister to the Buddha. The seven secrets of the Vaishali city and the Vajjis were revealed by Buddha. He claimed that residents of the city of Vaishali were extremely timely, respectful to their elders, and considerate of women in their community. The Vaishali city’s daughters were very strong. Ajatashatru sent his prime minister to join the alliance of the Vajji city after learning about its secrets. He was able to divide the Mahajanapada in a short amount of time, and after a protracted conflict that lasted 16 years, he eventually annexed this state.

The Vajjians made every attempt to battle Magadha, even though they were ultimately vanquished during this conflict. They shut the main gate and surrounded themselves with the city’s defences. Vaishali was surrounded by high, sturdy walls. As a result, Ajatashatru was unable to knock down the wall. Finally, the Magdhan army was able to breach Vaishali’s defences and invade the city. When the Magadhan people defeated the Vajji, the fight was finally over. The Magadha empire subsequently annexed the Vajji Kingdom.

Summary 

A significant Mahajanapada that existed between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE was the Vajji. There was a democratic type of government system at that time in the Vajji Kingdom. Its political system was based on the “Gana-Sanghas” system. The capital of Vajji, Vaishali, was surrounded by strong fortifications, protecting it against enemy attacks. Between 484 and 468 BCE, a conflict between the Magadha and Vajji kingdoms erupted. The Vajjians made every attempt to battle Magadha, even though they were ultimately vanquished during this conflict. The Magadha empire subsequently annexed the Vajji Kingdom.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What do you understand about Mahajanapada? Give an Example.
Ans. The places where the Indo-Aryan tribes resided during the later Vedic period came to be known as Mahajanapadas, or “great and powerful kingdoms.” An example of Mahajanapada is Vajji.

2. List Sixteen Sixth-Century BCE Mahajanapadas.
Ans. Gandahar, Kamboja, Magadha, Vajji, Matsya, Kuru, Chedi, Malla, Kosala, Shurasena, Ashmaka, Anga, Kashi, Avanti, Vatsa, and Panchala are the sixteen sixth century BCE Mahajanpadas.

3. Who was Ajatshatru?
Ans. The second strong monarch of Magadha was Ajatshatru, the son of Bimbisara. He had a reputation for winning wars. Among the kingdoms he overthrew were Vaishali, Kasi, and Kosala. Magadha rose to prominence under him as the most powerful kingdom in northern India.

4. What is a Republic? Name a few Historic Indian Republics called Mahajanapadas.
Ans. Republic is a form of governance in which the ruling class is chosen by the populace rather than by hereditary descent. Malla, Vajji, Kuru, and Kamboja were a few of the republic’s mahajanapadas in history.

Introduction

The Upanishads were written between 700 and 400 BCE  in the Sanskrit language. They contributed to the ancient people’s advancement in spiritual understanding. Vedanta also known as the Upanishads means “end of the Vedic period”. There are roughly 200 Upanishads, the most famous of which are the Aitareya Upanishad, Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, Chandogya Upanishad, Isha Upanishad, Katha Upanishad, Kausitaki Upanishad, Kena Upanishad, Maitri Upanishad, Mandukya Upanishad, Mundaka Upanishad, Prashna Upanishad, Sveta.

Birth of Upanishads

The Vedas could only be read and translated by Brahmins, regular people had great difficulty understanding them. Saints, therefore, wrote a summarized version of the Vedas that included additional queries and concepts in the form of Upanishads. The Upanishads were written at a time when there was a great deal of social, political, and economic unrest. The rural tribal civilization was in danger of extinction because the monarchy absorbed the people into urban life. In times of uncertainty, learnings from the Upanishads gave people peace, a sense of self-realization, and purpose.

Upanishads and Indian Society

The Upanishads are the repository of Hindu philosophy, and they served to uplift and maintain Hindus for a long period. Combining various Upanishads will give a good picture of the kind of civilization and way of life that existed during that era. 

At that time, the kings were specialists in both administration and warfare. They made an effort to promote knowledge of Vedic religion and also provided sanctuary for wise men and sages. 

The Upanishad era was characterized by a strong caste system. In terms of the Ashram system. Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, and Vanaprastha were more prevalent, while Sannyasa may also have been practised. The sanctity and integrity of each person’s private life were emphasized.

The status of women in Hindu society during that era was relatively high. During this time, females participated in spiritual discussions. Gargi and Maitreyi were famous women who participated in such discussions and gave their views regarding various spiritual topics. 

Learnings from Upanishads

The Upanishads are thought to be the authentic teachings of the sages of ancient India.

Learnings from the Upanishads include:

• The philosophy of human spiritual realization, including the meaning of life, existence, birth, and death, is addressed in the Upanishads.
• It explained the complicated truth of existence and how a  person can correct his thinking and be inspired to think differently from the inner soul’s perspective.
• It enabled people to examine their beliefs and give their relationships more meaning.
• The Upanishads describe the understanding of Brahman and Atman’s self-existence. Atman is a particular soul, while Brahman is the all-pervading soul.
• People learned about their being and how Brahman and Atman combined formed the substance of “permanence” (which existed) through the Upanishads.
• The four doctrines of dharma, karma, samsara and moksha are the foundation of the Upanishads and are well explained in these texts.
• According to the Upanishads, a spiritually aspirational person must think about the symbolic sacrifices that occur in the mind rather than concentrating on external sacrifices.
• Last but not least, the Upanishads explain the self-realization theory. By realizing the purpose of life, people might lessen their sorrow and suffering.

Interesting Facts 

• The best place to learn about self-realization and life’s realities is from the Upanishads.
• The impact of the Upanishads was not limited to India; it also extended to other nations.
• Although there are about 200 Upanishads, the majority of Hindu literature only mentions 108 of them.
• These Upanishads were among the earliest intellectual writings ever discovered; they even predated the Bible and the Qur’an by 800 and 1300 years, respectively.
• The Upanishads claim that Hindu sages united several Gods because they believed in unity. 
• Agni, Indra, and other Vedic deities are compared to the highest truth and given a spiritual purpose.
• The development of various Vedanta that differed from the Brahman and Atman aspects was aided by the Upanishads.

Summary 

The most important learning from the Upanishads-The final triumph, the victory of the soul over matter and man over nature, helped to establish, sustain, and perpetuate a vast heritage of spirituality. This was achieved, through the courageous pursuit of logical conclusions and intuitive, undetectable encounters outside the realm of reason. The experiences received from these learnings merged into a single principle that helped in human development. Upanishads are one of the oldest spiritual texts in Indian history, which helped man to live a life and build a society.

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. What do Dharma, Karma, Samsara, and Moksha Mean?
Ans:  Karma denotes a person’s response to an action. Dharma refers to a person’s obligations and responsibilities to society. Samsara, the cycle of both life and death, arises. Moksha is the ultimate goal of departing from the cycle of rebirth and death.

2. Who is the Upanishads’ Author?
Ans: The Upanishads’ author is still a mystery. The Upanishads are said to have been written by several authors. The scriptures were written with the help of famous sages like Aruni, Balaki, Sanatkumara, Yajnavalkya, and others.

3. Give the four Ashramas of the later Vedic Era.
Ans: The 4 ashrams of the Vedic period are-

• Brahmacharya: A phase in the Gurukul, the education process.
• Grihastha-A man was supposed to have a wife and children. Have a family life.
• Vanaprastha: A stage of life during which a person was supposed to put aside materialistic ambitions and relocate to the forests.
• Sanyasa: A man who abandons material interests to pursue exclusively spiritual objectives.

4. Give the names of the four Vedas. Which Veda is the Oldest?
Ans: The Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda are the four Vedas of the Vedic era. The oldest of them all is the Rig Veda.

Introduction

In Indian history, the rise and expansion of the Magadh empire are famously attributed to the time between 684 and 320 BCE. Avanti, Koshala, Magadha, and Vatsa were competing for supremacy among the sixteen Mahajanapadas from the sixth to the fourth centuries BCE. But the Magadha Kingdom was able to seize power. It rose to become India’s most powerful kingdom. The Magadh empire was Founded by Jarasandha, the son of Brihadratha. The capital of Magadh was located in Rajgir before being moved to Patliputra.

Magadh the Land of Power?

Between the fourth and sixth centuries BCE, Magadh rose to become a strong kingdom. Under the leadership of numerous powerful and effective kings, the kingdom prospered. The following are some of the factors that contributed to the establishment of the kingdom:

• Magadh was surrounded by three rivers, which served to both protect it from outside threats and facilitate trade and commerce. Additionally, Magadh’s two capitals were in ideal locations.
• In Magadh, there was a plentiful source of raw minerals including iron and copper, which helped the kingdom prosper.
• Magadh’s lush terrain benefited the agricultural industry of the time by boosting it.
• Magadh possessed many soldiers and a large arsenal. Elephants were also employed by the army at that time, greatly enhancing its power.
• Additionally, the development of Buddhism and Jainism had a significant impact on the development of the thought of the society as well as the expansion of the empire.

History of Magadh – Ancient India

Three significant dynasties ruled the Magadh empire: the Haryankas, Shisunaga, and Nanda dynasties. The empire’s greatness reached a very high peak thanks to a few outstanding kings from those dynasties.

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Haryanka dynasty

The first dynasty of the Magadh kingdom was the Haryanka dynasty. The well-known kings of this dynasty were Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, and Udayin.

• King Bimbisara ruled From 544 to 494 BC. He was the first monarch to establish matrimonial alliances as a way to strengthen the kingdom. He followed both Jainism and Buddhism.
• Ajatshatru, Bimbisara’s son, was accused of murdering his father. From roughly 494 to 462 BC, Ajatshatru presided over Haryanka’s dynasty. He used aggressive tactics to expand his kingdom.
• The following king, Udayin who was Ajatshatru’s son, led the realm. He was instrumental in moving Magadh’s capital from Rajgir to Patliputra. Nagadasak was the last ruler of the Haryanka dynasty.

Shisunaga’s Dynasty

This kingdom’s existence was reported between 413 and 345 BCE. Shisunaga and Kalasoka were the two prominent kings of the Shisunaga dynasty.

• Shisunaga was chosen by the public to lead the Magadh kingdom after Udayin’s reign. Shisunaga eventually put an end to the almost 100-year battle between Magadh and Avanti and was successful in incorporating the Avanti kingdom into the Magadh empire.
• King Kalasoka, the son of  Shisunaga, was another significant ruler of the Shishunaga dynasty. He gained national attention for presiding over the second Buddhist council at Vaishali.

Nanda’s Dynasty

The two most effective and greatest kings of the Nanada dynasty were Mahapadma Nanda and King Dhana Nanda. This dynasty’s existence was documented between 345 and 321 BCE. It was the Magadh Empire’s final dynasty. The unique future of this dynasty was that the kings were not Kshatriyas.

• Mahapadma Nanda founded the Nanda dynasty. After killing king Kalasoka, he ruled the kingdom for twenty-eight years. Mahapadma Nanda’s dynasty brought prosperity and success to Magadh, which boasted a high number of soldiers and a flourishing economy.
• Dhana Nanda headed the Nanda dynasty after the rule of Mhapadma Nanda. In this kingdom, he was the last powerful king. Alexander attacked India during the reign of Dhana Nanda. In the end, Chandragupta Maurya defeated Dhana Nanda and gained control of the empire.

                                           Fig: Flowchart of Magadh Empire

Establishment of the Mauryan Empire

The well-known Mauryan dynasty ruled from 324 to 184 BCE. The famous emperors of the Mauryan dynasty were Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Ashoka.

• After removing the last Nanda king, Dhanananda, from power, Chandragupta Maurya established this empire. From roughly 321 to 297 BC, Chandragupta was in power. He was a prosperous ruler in his kingdom.
• The son of Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, greatly expanded the kingdom’s prosperity. From roughly 297 to 273 BC, he was in charge of the kingdom. Mysore was thought to be part of the Maurya empire as well.
• The renowned historical ruler Ashoka Vardhana ruled after Bindusara. He introduced Buddhism to the populace of the nation. For approximately 40 years, he governed the kingdom. The first king in history to have his rules engraved on rocks was Ashoka. He was also among the most powerful monarchs who significantly increased the fame of the Maurya dynasty.
• Later, Shungas, Palas, Satvahanas, Guptas, etc. ruled over Magadh. The development of Magadh’s history was significantly influenced by these powerful dynasties.

Summary

Between the fourth and sixth centuries BCE, Magadh rose to become a strong kingdom. In Magadh, there was a plentiful source of raw minerals, including iron and copper, which helped the kingdom prosper. Three significant dynasties ruled the Magadh empire: the Haryanka, Shisunaga, and Nanda dynasties. The well-known Mauryan dynasty ruled from 324 to 184 BCE. Later, the Shungas, Palas, Satvahanas, Guptas, etc. ruled over Magadh. The development of Magadh’s history was significantly influenced by these powerful dynasties.

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Why did the Magadha Empire choose Pataliputra as its capital? Which was the capital of Magadha Earlier?
Ans: Pataliputra was the best place to serve as the imperial capital because it was in the heart of Magadha. The capital of Magadh was located in Rajgir before being moved to Patliputra.

2. What was the name of Magadha’s first King? In which time Period he Ruled?
Ans. King Bimbasara was the first king of the Magadha empire. King Bimbisara ruled from 544 to 494 BC. He was the first monarch to establish matrimonial alliances as a way to strengthen the kingdom. He followed both Jainism and Buddhism.

3. What was the reason for the fall of Magadha?
Ans. The rise of Jainism and Buddhism, a financial crisis, oppression by the Dushtamatyas, internal conflicts, and division of the empire into multiple provinces led to the fall of Magadha.

4. Which ruler ruled the Magadha Empire for the Last Time?
Ans. A new king, Mahapadma Nanda, took over as king of this Nanda dynasty in the middle of the fourth century BCE after the last ruler of this dynasty was murdered. This was the last dynasty in Magadha until the Mauryans overtook it.

Introduction

During the period between 1500 BCE and 800 BCE, society underwent a number of notable changes and the world saw the rise of the Vedic culture. This time period is termed the Vedic age. Hinduism’s holy writings, the Vedas, were written during this time and are now the primary literary sources that provide an understanding of Vedic life.

Indo-Aryan Migration to Vedic Civilization

The arrival of Indo-Aryans on the Indian subcontinent marks the beginning of the Vedic era. These people are thought to have split off from the Indo-Iranian tribes and begun settling in the northern Indus Valley after the great Indus Valley civilization had collapsed. Some historians and archaeologists, however, contend that the Indo-Aryans were native to the Indian subcontinent and that the myth of their migratory origins is untrue. There is disagreement among many schools of thought regarding the Indo-Aryan people’s origin. Some claim that they are from Central Asia, while others suggest that they are from the Russian steppes.

Vedic Civilization 

The Vedic civilization was the second great civilization after the Indus valley civilization that inhabited the Indian subcontinent. This civilization grew and dominated the area of northwestern India during the time period between 1500 BCE to 800 BCE. The people of Vedic Civilization were called Aryans which means noble. These people were pastoral nomads. Cattle rearing was their main occupation during the early Vedic period and in the later Vedic period, agriculture became their main occupation. Apart from cattle rearing, the Vedic people carried out small-scale cultivation to supplement their food needs and also involved themselves in other economic activities like chariot-making, weaving, carpentry, tanning, etc. 

Life of people During the Vedic Period

The Vedic age is basically divided into two phases: The early Vedic Age and the Later Vedic Age. The significant changes in people’s social and cultural life during this time period led to such distinction.

Life of people during the Early Vedic period

Society

The Early Vedic era was characterized by patriarchal culture. The family served as the social unit, and the oldest male member served as the family head. The majority of the populace practiced monogamy, but the leaders occasionally practiced polygamy. Families related by blood formed the clan and clans together formed the Jana or tribe.

There was no caste system in early Vedic society since everyone was treated equally. Based on the people’s occupations, the population was classified into three groups. A person may pick any occupation, regardless of what his ancestors did for a living, and caste was then decided by occupation rather than birth.

Occupation

The Rigvedic age is another name for the early Vedic period. There are numerous indications throughout Rigveda that raising cattle was the Rigvedic people’s primary source of income.  The majority of people at this time were pastoralists. For milk and hides, they raised cattle, sheep, goats, and other animals.

Religion

The Vedic people revered the natural elements. The gods of the Vedic era were incarnations of natural elements. There were various gods who controlled the various needs of the civilization. For instance, warriors worshipped Indra, who was also considered a deity of the weather.

Life of people during the Later Vedic Period

Society and the Caste System

The caste system began to take hold during the later Vedic period when societal divisions changed. The four varnas Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras made up the society.

The Shudras were considered to be untouchables and were subject to slavery. The highest caste, the Brahmans, had access to perform Vedic rites. The caste system was made hereditary, preventing people from choosing the careers they wanted. In the later Vedic period, women’s status decreased and a number of limitations were placed on them. Despite the introduction of the combined family and Gotra concepts, the family nevertheless served as the foundation of society. Since members of the same gotra were blood relatives, marriages within the same gotra were not common.

In the later Vedic period, individuals began organizing themselves to establish towns, and urbanization became apparent. The kingship was inherited, hence the son of a monarch succeeded his father as ruler. The King’s power and authority were increased by an elaborate coronation ritual performed for him by the Brahmans, who were now regarded as the god’s representatives. Northern India witnessed the rise of the 16th Mahajanpadas during this time.

Occupation

Most of the later Vedic people were farmers, and at this time, farming was the people’s main source of income. 

Summary

The 1500–800 BCE era is referred to as the Vedic age. The Aryans were the inhabitants of the Vedic civilization. The early Vedic age and the later Vedic age are the two periods that comprise the Vedic age. 

Early Vedic civilization did not adhere to the caste system and valued individual equality. The society was patriarchal, yet women were respected, had freedom, and were permitted to attend social gatherings.

The caste system was prevalent during the later Vedic period and became hereditary. While the king was regarded as the divine representative, the Brahmans rose to prominence. Women’s status has greatly deteriorated. Shudras were considered untouchables and lived miserable lives.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Which texts in Vedic literature contain the Gayatri Mantra?
Ans: The Gayatri Mantra, which was written for Savitri, the sun goddess, is found in the third Mandal of the Rigveda.

2. What are the four Vedas?
Ans: Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda are the four Vedas.

3. Comment on the origin of Aryans.
Ans: The central Asian regions are said to be the origin of the Aryans. They are thought to have split off from the Indo-Iranian tribes and relocated to live in the Indus Valley’s northern parts.