Category: Social Studies

Introduction

The history of India and the Subcontinent under the Mughal Empire underwent significant upheaval in the 16th and 17th centuries. The strong Rajput kings of Northern India were gradually losing control over diverse regions. The Mughals, on the other hand, could not enlarge their empire across the entire nation. The most effective tactic for enlarging their empire was Akbar’s plan to form marriage ties with the Rajput’s. The Rajput’s were likewise prepared to strengthen the Mughal Empire for their own political gain. They freely gave their daughters in marriage to the Mughal emperors in exchange for money and respected positions in the Mughal empire.

Mughal alliances with the Rajput’s

• The Rajput’s were an important part of Akbar’s diplomatic plan to strengthen their grip over the nation. He had faith that Rajput’s would supply them with a dependable and powerful military.
• Rajput’s performed a variety of tasks under Emperor Akbar during the Mughal era.
• Rajput’s were given money and several significant posts in the government, including the office of Mansabdars, in recognition of their contributions to the defense and expansion of the Mughal empire.
• Emperor Akbar eliminated the Jizya Tax and the Pilgrimage Tax for the Hindus as the alliance grew over time.
• Through reconciliation strategies with Hindus, particularly with the Rajput’s Emperor Akbar gradually extended the Mughal Empire into Northern India and, to some extent in the Deccan region.

Akbar’s Marriage to Rajput Girls

• As a part of the New Diplomatic Strategy, a marriage alliance was created between the two ruling families, the Mughals and the Rajput’s. The Rajput’s decided to barter their daughters for political gain and monetary benefits.
• The first Rajput woman to marry the Mughal Emperor Akbar and gain access to the Mughal zenana was known as Jodha Bai in 1562. She was Raja Bihari Mal’s (Bharmal)daughter, the ruler of Amber.
• The Rajput’s gained a lot of benefits and influence by arranging for her marriage to the Mughal monarch.
• Raja Bhagwan Das, the brother of Akbar’s wife, rose to the rank of commander in the Mughal cavalry.
• Similar to this, Rao Kalyanmal of Bikaner wished to marry Emperor Akbar to his two nieces, Raj Kanwar and Bhanumati.
• Around the same period, Rajkumari Nathi Bai, the daughter of the ruler of Jaisalmer Hari Raj, was also going to marry Emperor Akbar. Akbar also gave his son Kunwar Sultan Singh a position of honor in the palace.

King Akbar was a great ruler and hence never objected to them following their own Hindu faith. He even provided his wives’ parents and other royal relatives with respectable jobs. All the wives were free to follow their Hindu rites and prayers just as they had in their paternal home. Also, Akbar never attempted to convert them to Islam.

Jahangir’s Marriage to Rajput Girls

Jahangir, Akbar’s successor, and son, also kept up his marriage ties to the Rajput. Prior to taking the throne, Jahangir wed Mani Bai, a Kachchwaha princess who was the daughter of Raja Bhagwant Das. Then, after ascending to the position of Emperor, he wed numerous Rajput women. Notably, the daughters of Jagat Singh Kachchawaha and Ram Chandra Bundela also married King Jahangir. The last union between the Rajput and the Mughals took place in 1715 when Indira Kanwar, the daughter of Marwar King Ajit Singh, married Emperor Farrukhsiyar.

List of marriage alliances between the Mughals and the Rajput

Here is a list of marriage alliances between the Mughals and the Rajput-

Summary

In Indian history, the Mughals were the most influential and powerful kings. The Mughals nearly completely expanded their Empire during the 16th and 17th centuries. The Turko Afghan Sultanate was taking control of the regions that the Rajput kings once ruled in North and North East India. The Turko Afghan sultanate was overthrown by the Mughals. The Mughals thus proved to be very powerful, But when Akbar assumed control, he understood the importance of having a reliable and powerful military. He then developed a fresh approach to diplomacy wherein he started making alliances with the Rajput by marrying their daughter. The first Rajput princess who married King Akbar was Jodhabai. These alliances helped in the growth of the Mughal empire and also gave various benefits to the Rajput who married their daughters to the Mughal King..

Frequently Askes Questions

1. Who were the Rajput?
Ans:  The Rajput were a military clan renowned for their valour and fidelity. The Sanskrit term “Raja Putra,” which implies a King’s son, served as the inspiration for the name “Rajput. From the sixth until the twelfth centuries, they controlled India.

2. Give a short explanation of the Mughals.
Ans:   The Timurid dynasty included the Mughals. The Turco Mongols of Central Asia were the ancestors of this dynasty. They took control of India in 1526, and by 1707 they had taken control of the whole subcontinent, which included modern-day India, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. They held power over India till the 1850s.

3. Who was Emperor Akbar?
Ans:  Emperor Akbar’s full name Abu’l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar was the son of emperor Humayun. He served as the third Mughal emperor from 1556 to 1605. He was known as “the great” emperor due to a number of his achievements such as-

• The expansion of the Mughal Empire across the Indian subcontinent.
• Tolerance towards various other religious beliefs.
• His administrative reform initiatives for the betterment of society.
• His progressive attitude to end tax discrimination against Muslims and Hindus.

Introduction

In the 1600s, the East India Company, a trading organization, of Britain came to India. At first, EIC’s primary goal was to purchase raw materials from India at the lowest possible cost, sell them to other countries, and reap the maximum financial benefits. in 1707. After the death of Aurangzeb, the last powerful emperor of the Mughal empire, the EIC stopped paying taxes to Indian monarchs. They viewed it as a chance to increase their earnings. Bengal was where the British established their first factory, and after victories at Plassey and Buxar, they gained complete dominance over the region. As a result of these two conflicts, EIC’s stance changed; they now desired to rule and control India because doing so would increase their profits. British officials appointed residents in Indian states had begun meddling in internal affairs as well. They implemented the subsidiary alliance doctrine, which forbade the partner state from maintaining its own armed forces and instead stationed the British army there. The king of that state paid the full cost of this arrangement. Because of this strategy, the British gained supremacy in India. The Doctrine of Lapse was the final annexation strategy the EIC used before achieving complete control over India. This policy was first presented by Lord Dalhousie, Governor General, in 1848.

The Doctrine of Lapse

• In 1848, Lord Dalhousie, the Governor General, instituted this strategy.
• According to the Doctrine, if a king died without a masculine heir, that country would inevitably fall under British control.
• Dalhousie opposed the king’s prerogative to adopt an heir because he wanted to fully destroy the Mughal empire. He only granted the king’s true-born son the right to property.
• The British claimed that the Doctrine was necessary to protect the people from Nawab’s despotic rule and abuse.
• Dalhousie argued that the old system of government was making life miserable for the population.
• Dalhousie made such as policy because he aspired to overthrow the monarchs who claimed to be descended from the Mughals and who asserted their right to hold power.
• With the help of this tactic, the EIC conquered India by claiming the country’s principal states.
• This tactic led to the annexation of several states, including Satara, Udaipur, Sambalpur, Jhansi, Awadh, and Nagpur.

Below given are the states which were annexed by the East India Company due to The Doctrine of Lapse.

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Satara

During the third Anglo-Maratha War in 1818, the Indian kingdom of Satara was founded. In the year 1848, the British annexed it. Because Appa Sahib, the monarch of Satara, passed away in 1848 without leaving a son to take his place, Lord Dalhousie decided to acquire the state of Satara.

Sambalpur

Up until 1817, the Marathas invaded and governed Sambalpur. Following the third Anglo-Maratha war, the British crowned Raja Narayan Singh as the monarch of Sambalpur. When Raja Narayan Singh passed away in 1849, the British conquered the kingdom because he had no masculine heir.

Udaipur

In 1852, Udaipur was annexed. The annexation of Udaipur was eventually overturned by Lord Canning because the board of directors designated it as a protected ally.

Nagpur

Following the Third Anglo-Maratha War, the British formed a subsidiary alliance with the Maratha state. British citizens acknowledged a Child as the state’s ruler. Up until 1830, a British resident presided over the court; the monarch received the power in 1830.The ruler died in 1853 without any heir and that is why the Britishers annexed the kingdom and ignored the adopted son.

Jhansi

Gangadhar Rao was the raja of the Jhansi kingdom. After the king’s death in 1853, the rani adopted Damodar Rao, a son. Damodar Rao’s claim was rejected by the British, who thereafter acquired the state of Jhansi. Rani Laxmi Bai and British soldiers engaged in the renowned battle of Jhansi, which served as the foundation for the Indian revolution of 1857.

Awadh

One of the most significant states that the British seized in 1856 was Awadh. The British insisted that annexing the kingdom of Awadh was their responsibility in order to protect the population from the Nawab’s corrupt rule. British officials deposed Nawan Wajid Ali Shah due to his despotic

The effect of the Doctrine of Lapse

There were various effects of this doctrine which are given below-

• The Indian Rajas were deeply unsatisfied with the British.
• The revolt of the Indian Rajas and nobilities, which assumed a large form as the revolt of 1857, was the most obvious result of Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse.
• The monarch of Nagpur’s adoptive son, Nana Sahib, and the Rani of Jhansi rebelled against the British.
• Lord Dalhousie was held responsible for the revolt of 1857.
• Following the removal of the Doctrine of Lapse in 1857, Queen Elizabeth assumed the title of empress of India.

Summary

The British arrived in India with the intention of trading. They arrived as the East India Company, a trading firm. British people gradually established their monopoly in trade and took control of it. When the Mughal empire collapsed in 1707, India was split up into numerous small kingdoms, and no major power existed. The British viewed the possibility as an opportunity to colonize and annex India. British soldiers fought in numerous battles and won all of them to gain control over India They introduced a number of policies that made sure that they controlled India completely. The Doctrine of Lapse was one such policy wherein the kingdom that did not have any male heir was taken under British rule compulsory and an adopted son was not considered the legal heir of the kingdom.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What justifications did the British use to annex Awadh?
Ans: The British asserted that Wajid Ali Shah, the monarch of Awadh, was an unfit ruler.

2. Britishers traveled to India when and why?
Ans: British traders from the East India Company first arrived in India around 1600. In order to do business with India. They wanted to buy the raw materials which were abundantly present in India.

3. What measures did the British take to annex Indian princely states?
Ans: The British followed the subsidiary alliance doctrine, which disregarded the kingdom’s own army and forced deploying British troops in their replacement. According to the Doctrine of Lapse only the true son of the king can rule the kingdom and if not, the Britishers gained control.

Introduction

Fish was one of the easily accessible foods that humans in the past often consumed. All around the world, several fish species are consumed as food. It is a significant food that is rich in many nutrients. Different fish, whether freshwater or marine, are used by humans as food. Fish and other sea creatures that are eaten for food are more commonly referred to as seafood.

Fish as food

• Nearly half of the fish consumed today was raised through fish farming, which is practized globally.
• In aquaculture, fish such as tuna, salmon, halibut, cod, and trout are regularly farmed.
• Aquafarms can be constructed as mesh cages submerged in water in addition to concrete enclosures on land.
• Fish farms, however, have the potential to damage the ecology by introducing diseases, pollutants, and invasive species.
• In the coastal parts of India, fish is a common diet.
• Up until 1961, the annual increase in fish consumption worldwide was roughly 3.2% and it has exceeded both the size of the population and the demand for meat of terrestrial animals .
• In addition to increased production, the expansion in consumption has also been influenced by a number of other factors such as-less waste, better use, improved distribution systems, and rising consumer demand.

Fish production

• Fish production, which is known as mariculture or aquaculture where a number of fish are raised and expanded for commercial purposes. Fish can be produced using a number of techniques:
• Fishing capturing: As the name implies, fish in this are collected from many water bodies such as ponds, lakes, rivers etc.
• Fish breeding: It is the practise of raising particular fish species in confined water bodies with great care to achieve optimal yield. This is often referred to as pisciculture or fish farming. It is divided into two further categories:
  • Inland fishery– Fishing in fresh waterbodies such rivers, ponds, lakes, etc. is referred to as inland fishery. The production in this is average. Examples of fishes grown are Rohu, Catla,  carp, etc.
  • Marine fishery– The majority of marine fisheries include fishing in sea and ocean water. Offshore and deep-water fisheries are the two main categories of marine fishery. Fishes grown here are Pomfret, sardines, hilsa,etc.
• Additionally, there are three different approaches to fish farming: extensive, semi-intensive, and intensive.
  • Extensive fish farming– In extensive fish farming, fish productivity is based on the natural productivity of water, it requires large ponds with minimal care.
  • Semi-intensive farming– This method  uses fertilisers to boost the natural productivity of fishes. It has relatively small ponds with a higher fish density.
  • Intensive farming- An extremely well-maintained and well- controlled method of raising fish, in small ponds and tanks, is known as intensive farming.

Making of Regional Cultures

People eat what is easily accessible to them in a particular place. For instance, rice and fish are the two main staple foods of Bengal, which has hot and arid climate. Numerous instances may be found in the literature, sculptures, and artwork of the Bengali people that demonstrate how important fishing has always been to their culture.  For instance, the walls of temples and viharas sometimes have ceramic plaques showing scenes of fish being prepared and transported to markets in baskets. Since fish is a common cuisine in Bengal, Brahmins were allowed to eat some varieties of fish even if their religion forbids doing so. This was found in  a text from the thirteenth century called the Brihaddharma Purana. All of these demonstrate how the regional culture of Bengal developed, due to fish and how eating fish did not become a matter of debate there.

Summary

The consumption of fish as a staple food became common practice since it was easily available. People started using different techniques to capture and breed fish. In general, there are two types of fisheries-  inland fisheries where fish are caught from fresh water, and marine fisheries salt where fish are caught from seas and oceans. A number of variables, including decreased waste and rising consumer demand, contributed to the increase in fishing productivity.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Why is fish considered a healthy food?
Ans: One of the world’s healthiest foods is fish because it has important nutrients like protein and vitamin D in abundance. Also, omega-3 fatty acids, which are vital for your body and brain, are also found in fish.

2. Which fish has high protein content?
Ans: Fresh tuna contains the greatest protein per gram. It is the most commercially  available and provides the greatest protein per weight (30.7g in a 100-gram serving).

3. Is fish more nutritious than meat?
Ans: Red meats (beef, hog, and lamb) often contain higher cholesterol and saturated (bad) fat than chicken, fish, and plant-based proteins like beans. Saturated fat and cholesterol can increase blood cholesterol levels and aggravate heart disease. Hence as compared to red meat, chicken and fish have less saturated fat and are more healthier.

Introduction

The Mughals built their empire in the Indian subcontinent from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries. They mostly achieved this through military conquests, but they continued to solidify their position by keeping diplomatic ties with other kingdoms. When the Mughal kingdom reached its pinnacle, other kingdoms began to recognise its authority, formed allies with the Mughal emperor, and merged with the Mughal empire. The rulers who readily merged with the Mughal empire was respected and honoured. In this way, the Mughal empire grew and ruled most parts of India for a very long time.

Mughal Relations with other rulers

• The Mughal state began to prosper and eventually attained its zenith. They adopted a policy of conquering kingdoms that refused to recognize their rule  through military operations.
• However, many nations accepted the Mughal empire’s subjection after learning of their strength and splendour. 
• The Mughals honoured the devotion of such kings who accepted their authority during the construction of the Empire.
• The Mughals let them keep their privileges in place of paying annual tributes, and on the other hand, gave members of that clan important positions in the court.
• In this way, the Mughals maintained a balance of power by not humiliating kingdoms that were annexed and submerged into the Mughal empire.
• Mughals had an extraordinary relationship with the Rajputs, this was so because King Akbar considered Rajputs as the primary concern which can hinder the growth of the Mughal Empire.

Mughal relations with Rajputs

Regarding Mughal connections with the Rajputs, it was Akbar who realized that the Rajputs’ assistance was essential for expanding and consolidating his kingdom.

Prior to him, Babur and Humayun had no clear policy to embrace the Rajputs; instead, Babur grew their empire by overthrowing Rana Sanga (of Mewar) and Medini Rai (Chanderi). Similarly, Humayun was also unable to maintain cordial ties with Rajputs despite his marriage to a Rajput princess and  Rani Karmavati (of Mewar’s) offer to accept him as a brother.

He made an effort to gain the Rajput’s trust in the following ways:

• The specific Rajput policy was developed by Akbar as a part of his empire-building efforts.
• He cultivated his relationships with Rajput’s through marriages. He married several Rajput princesses.
• He also married off his son, prince Salim, to the daughter of  Bhagwan Das of Amber.
• Rajput lords like Raja Todar Mal, Raja Birbal, and Raja Man Singh received significant posts in his army and government.
• He allowed the Rajput rulers that they could retain their kingdom and continued to rule by accepting Akbar’s overlordship and paying him regular tributes.
• Akbar adopted a wise strategy of refraining from interfering in the internal issues of the Rajputs.
• Rajputs were permitted to practise their religion, construct temples, and participate in festivals during King Akbar’s rule.
• King Akbar also abolished jizyah and won the trust of various Rajputs.
• Not all Rajputs embraced Mughal rule or made friends with them; some Rajput kingdoms posed a serious threat to the Mughals and had to be forcibly incorporated into the Mughal Empire. 
• Even though these kingdoms were defeated, these Rajputs were not humiliated; rather, they were honoured, and their territory was given to them as watan jagir during Akbar’s reign. 

King Akbar is referred to as “the real founder of the Mughal Empire” since his this Rajput policy during the 16th and 17th centuries was one of the key causes of the Mughal empire’s stability and continued expansion.

Summary

The way the Mughals interacted with other kings was crucial to the growth and stabilization of the Mughal Empire. Babur and Humayun held a neutral view of other kings, particularly Rajput’s, as they did not see them as the main obstacle to the empire’s growth. But after Akbar came to power, the Mughals’ perspective on Rajput’s started to alter. As a result, he maintained cordial ties with Rajput’s by granting them special privileges because he saw them as the greatest threat to the Mughal empire. King Akbar respected and honoured all the various clans which had surrendered to the Mughal empire, he not only gave those emperors respectable positions in the Mughal court but despite of conquering their land he allowed the respective rulers to run their own kingdom. Jahangir and Shajahan kept this liberal attitude toward Rajput’s, but as Aurangzeb came into power he destroyed all relations with the Rajput’s and brought the downfall of the Mughal empire.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Explain the term Watan Jagir.
Ans: Watan jagir is the name for the substantial autonomy that the Rajput chieftains received in their native regions even after the Mughals took control of the region, provided that they were willing to recognise Mughal rule.

2. What was Aurangzeb’s religious policy?
Ans: The fundamental goal of Aurangzeb’s strict religious policy was to convert India into an Islamic nation. For that he did the following-

• He took anti-Hindu measures like destroying temples, imposing jizyah, and expelling Hindus from important posts.
• He urged individuals to become Muslims to be exempt from numerous taxes.
• His religious policies caused a great deal of division and sparked a number of revolts by Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats, and Satnamis.

3. What does sovereignty mean to you?
Ans: The term “sovereignty” describes the absolute power of one person to run a state.

Introduction

The first humans were hunters and gatherers who mainly relied on hunting for food. These hunter-gatherers made up a small group of no more than 100–150 individuals. They used to wander about looking for food. There were many early humans living there at the time- Neanderthals, homo sapiens, homo Rhodesians, etc. Only Homo sapiens survived the onset of the Stone Age, around 50000 BCE, and began to rule the planet. Early modern humans are known as Homo sapiens. The people that now inhabit the earth are descended from these homo sapiens. These are The lone surviving member of the human species, which till today rule the life of modern human beings started to develop in the early stone age and further developed in middle the stone age.

Stone age

The Stone Age, which spans roughly from 5,000 BCE to 4000 BCE, was a time when humans were primarily involved in hunting and gathering. Three distinct phases make up the stone age:

• Paleolithic or old stone age.
• Mesolithic or middle stone age.
• Neolithic or the New Stone Age.

Old Stone Age- This age began as a result of human evolution and population growth. It is also known as the Palaeolithic age. The early stone age, which lasted from about 500,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE, was divided into three stages:

• Primitive stone age
• Mid-Paleolithic period
• Older Stone Age, upper

Middle stone age-This is often known as the Mesolithic age, lasted from 8000 BCE to 10000 BCE. During this time, hunter-gatherers began to create new varieties of stone and bones for use in hunting.

New Stone Age– It is also known as Neolithic age .This period, which saw the development of agriculture and other metals like copper, bronze, and iron, lasted from around 8000 BCE to about 4000 BCE. Hunter-gatherers began to employ stone blades, and various other tools during this time.

Fire and cooking

• Richard Wrangham is an anthropologist from the United States who has investigated the history of fire and the evolution of mankind.
• He has claimed that the homo sapiens and Neanderthals learned the ability of controlling fire from the Homo Erectus, who discovered fire around 1.8 million years ago.
• The ability to control fire is the main reason which distinguishes humans from all other living organisms. Fire was the revolutionary innovation of the human.
• Humans alone have the intelligence to burn and control fire, and they made use of this technology to cook fruits, vegetables, meat etc.
• He claimed that prior to the discovery of fire, human teeth were too large and the digestive system, along with a small brain, was overly complex.
• However, as people began to cook, tooth size began to decrease, and the digestive tract became less complex as cooked food can be easily digested. Hence more energy is now available for use by the brain. This has resulted in increasing the size of the human brain and also its intelligence.

Humans and Tools

• Early stone tools have recently been discovered at the shore of Lake Turkana (Kenya), around 2015.
• Stone tools’ carbon dating indicated that they were around 3.3 million years old.
• The discovery shows that Australopithecus afarensis or Kenyanthropus platyops are the earliest human species to have employed these tools.
• Recently, it has been proposed that Homo Erectus, was the first human to use tools. Previously, it was thought that Homo Habilis was the first human to invent tools.
• The tools made by the early man was primarily used for digging, cooking, and hunting.
• Hunting provided people with their main source of energy, therefore most of the time their tools were used for this purpose.
• The earliest humans made tools in such a away that one side of the tool had a narrow shape and was usually sharp egded and the other side was utilized as an handle. 
• The hunter-gatherers initially started out using raw stone to hunt the animal, but through time they began to learn how to cut the stone in ways that made it a better tool.
• Following techniques are used for making tools-
  • Direct percussion flaking technique: This method involves directly striking one stone with another stone to shatter it into the desired shape.
  • Indirect percussion flaking techniques: With the help of this technique more complex tools are created. This method uses indirect hitting the stone cutting purposes.
  •  Grinding and Polishing: Blades, bows, arrows, and other objects are made using the grinding. Polishing is occasionally employed to make something sharp and add aesthetic value.

• Bones, Wood and Stone were the common materials which were used for making tools. Stone tools were the best out of the three.
• Various tools were made which were used for cutting meat and bones. Some tools were used to scarpe the bark of trees and animal skins. Some tools were also used for chopping purposes.
• Spears and arrows were used for hunting animals. They had a stone edge which was sharp and killed the animals. This stone edge was attached to a long wooden or bone piece which acted as an handle and helped in launching the tool easily.
• There were specialized tools for chopping firewood.

Summary

The first humans were hunter-gatherers who relied on hunting for their food requirements. The development of human tools is categorized by researchers in the various epochs of human growth, for instance, the old stone age of human history has tools that are not sophisticated but as the years passed tools became advanced and very specific for particular purposes. Humans first began to create sophisticated tools to hunt animals. The copper, bronze, and iron ages followed the stone age. Humans have used different tools in each of the three ages. Common tools that were used for hunting were arrows and spears. These tools were either made from stone, bone or wood.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. How did prehistoric people make tools?
Ans: The sole tools used by the giant apes and the earliest human ancestors were likely sticks and stones. The first tools made by early humans were from stones that had been broken and smashed to create a sharp edge on one end and which can be use for hunting purposes.

2. What do you mean by the bronze age?
Ans: The bronze era is the period that followed the end of the stone age. The bronze age, which lasted roughly from 3300 BCE to 1200 BCE, is when people first learned how to employ bronze, a form of metal, in everyday life

3. What was one of the most crucial tools used by prehistoric humans?
Ans: In the Ancient tradition, sharp-edged stone flakes created during the process of making core tools were likely the most essential tools. Without any further alterations, these basic flake tools were utilized as knives.

Introduction 

The transition from primitive humans to modern humans involved various modifications. Throughout this process, several human lifestyles were observed. They transitioned from being food gatherers to producers. They made numerous discoveries that are still in use in modified form. They then started to create shelters for a prolonged stay in a particular location as farming advanced. They are thought to have originated in Africa and then gradually spread to other regions of the world. These people initially lived in tiny groupings but over time shifted to bigger groups. With that, the concept of villages was developed and cultural adaption became simpler.

Lifestyle and Culture of early modern humans

• In the beginning, humans were hunter-gatherers. They moved around extensively and used stone weapons to hunt wild animals and obtain harvest from trees.
• To protect themselves from the harsh weather, they used to cover themselves in either animal skins or leaves or bark of trees.
• As they progressed, they discovered fire and learned to use it for many things.
• Early modern humans shifted toward farming as the climate on earth warmed up.
• Some of these humans were engaged in heavy hunting, while others were in the early stages of domestication.
• Early modern people raised crops like corn, wheat, and barley and became food producers.
• The notions of family and community also emerged when these humans  began residing in small communities. In turn, villages were established for safety and cooperation of the people.

Population Trends Beginning About 100,000 Years Ago

• Researchers and historians have estimated that early modern humans, or Homo sapiens, originated in various parts of Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago.
• For many years, these modern humans continued to produce crude, primitive stone tools, just like their ancestors.
• According to scientific studies, there was a gap period between, when people start to look modern and when they start behaving modern.
• Stephen Shennan, an archaeologist at London University, believes that cultural change is what allowed humans to socialize and begin residing in large groupings. This paved the road for their modernization.
• Population growth in Africa made it simpler for people to establish connections with nearby communities. Most likely, they switched partners for mating. This ultimately resulted in the exchange of ideas and genetic material which paved way for newer creations and inventions.
• Homo sapiens first migrated from Africa to Europe some 45,000 years ago.
• Neanderthals were already present in Europe when modern people first arrived. They outnumbered their rival Neanderthals and eliminated them from Europe.
• The population started to drop around 25,000 years ago, during the Ice Age, when the ice almost completely cover the northern Europe. However, when this era came to a conclusion, the population once more increased.
• With the introduction of farming and established life 11,000 years ago, female fertility also increased. As a result, the population reached up to 6 to 7 million on the beginning of the Neolithic period.

Early Modern Man Society

• Modern humans initially preferred to remain in small groups, but they gradually began to form big groups as a result of mutual ties.
• In these groups, everyone had access to resources like food and tools.
• During that time, there was still no sense of personal or individual control and hence they used to be a danger to other groups.
• When the large groups of humans divided themselves into villages, all of these things started to change. They  became more sophisticated, and gradually the idea of the family also emerged.

Summary

Numerous studies have been conducted to examine- the way of life, culture, and population growth of early modern humans. Early modern people began to adapt to various habitats and surroundings as they began to spread across the globe. A variety of lifestyles could be observed as a result of the shifting climate and farming activities.

They developed farming habits and cultivated various crops for food and nutrition. People stayed in the area longer as a result of these farming activites. This caused a transition from a nomadic to a settled lifestyle. Also the concept of family and community developed during this era.

Frequently Asked Questions

Which is the World’s Oldest “Village”?
Ans: The Mladec caverns are located in the Prague region of the Czech Republic is regarded as the world’s  oldest “village” . Many early modern human skeletons or remains can be found in these caves. The bones discovered here were 31,000 years old.

Researchers attempted to study the DNA of these fossils but were unable in doing so. They did, however, manage to analyse the DNA of two specimens and discovered that those did not belong to the “homo” series.

2. When and what is the reason of human population explosion which occured 60,000-80,000 years ago?
Ans: According to several archaeological studies, the Neolithic era is responsible for the expansion of the human population. In this period the change to domestication led to the development of more sophisticated procedures of agriculture and settlements, opening the path for population rise from 4-5 million to 60-70 million. But. according to a study from the University of Paris, population growth occurred considerably earlier than the farming or Neolithic periods, more likely  population expansion occurred in the Paleolithic hunter-gatherer period.

3. What did the early ancestors eat?
Ans: The earliest hominins likely had an omnivorous diet similar to that of modern chimpanzees, which includes substantial amounts of fruit, leaves, flowers, bark, insects, and meat.

Introduction 

The origin and advancement in the physical features of human ancestors have been termed human evolution.  According to this theory, early humans went through a number of stages which converted them from prehistoric man to modern humans. Gradually the development in their brain size permitted them to use their physical attributes more skillfully. Early humans underwent many changes during the Neolithic period. They changed from hunters and gatherers to food producers, from living in trees or caves to becoming settlers, and from nomads to properly established people. Through this evolutionary process, humans developed the skill of managing resources efficiently and learnt the ability to remain in social work with other unknown individuals.

Evolution

Evolution is the gradual change in the inherited traits of  populations over many generations. These traits are the expressions of genes, which are passed down through from parent to offspring during sexual reproduction. This is the process by which a living organism changes and develops from their ancestors. Natural selection, mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift are a few of the methods which bring about evolution in a species. As a result of these processes, species emerge, grow, and adapt to their physical and social environments.

Evolution of Humans

Evolution of humans occurred from apes. Most scientists believe that humans and apes must have developed from the same creature because they share so many characteristics, such as long arms and a large brain. These  ape like creatures were called hominids.

Australopithecus Afarensis and Lucy

• The name Australopithecus refers to the earliest hominid. Australopithecus africanus, Australopithecus robustus Boisie, and afarensis are some of the different types of Australopithecus that have been identified through fossils.
• Australopithecus afarensis fossils have been discovered from Etopia.
• Experts have seen the last phase of bipedal movement in this species.
• Despite being able to stand upright, these humans still had certain ape-like characteristics.
• The most well-known Australopith is “Lucy“. It is a skeleton of Australopithecus afarensis which 3 million years ago was discovered in 1974 
• It was found by Donald C. Jhonson and his student Tom Gray at the site of Hardar in Ethiopia.
• While looking for animal bones, Johnson and Gray unintentionally discovered a little arm bone fragment and recognized that it belonged to hominids.

Homo Habilis

• The earliest known fossils of Homo are known as “homo Habilis,” and they were found in Kenya.
• The genus homo is different from Australopithecus, as its brain was bigger in size.
• Two million years ago, Homo Habilis possessed a larger brain that was nearly 800 cc in size.
• It was believed that Homo Habilis made various tools.
• They were first classified as members of the australopithecine family, but an in-depth research, later demonstrated that they should actually be considered early human specimens.

Homo Erectus

• A new species known as Homo Erectus emerged after the origin of Homo Habilis.
• It had a larger brain, that was 1000cc in size.
• They were considerably bigger and taller than Homo Habilis and now they could stand straight.
• Their grip improved as their fingers developed and this enabled them to firmly grasp objects.
• They began to travel enormous distances and build tools with great proficiency.

Homo sapiens Neanderthalensis

• Gradually Homo erectus perished nearly around 400,000 years ago.
• Around 125,000 years ago, a new species of Homo appeared on the human evolutionary process the Homo Neanderthals or Homo sapiens Neanderthals.
• In the 20th century, their fossils were discovered in Germany.
• Neanderthal brain continued to grow in size, and  evidence of ‘culture’ began to emerge
• However, Neanderthal skulls were very distinct from those of modern humans.

 Homo Sapiens Sapiens

• Then emerged the Homo sapiens sapiens, also known as the “thinking man” or “wise man,” from which modern humans evolved.
• They had a 1350cc brain, which allowed them to create more sophisticated tools.
• The homo sapiens sapiens began to interact with their social surroundings and live in groups.
• To dwell longer in a place, they started constructing proper and strong  shelters.
• They were likely the first living things to speak what we now refer to as language, and it proved to be helpful for them.

The Neolithic Revolution

• The beginning of the Neolithic period can not be traced to a particular date as it was emerging at different times in different places.
• It is one of the third stages of development and it saw a evolution in the early humans’ way of existence.
• The invention of agriculture was the most significant aspect of this period. Now, they no longer need to go around in quest of food because they have learned to cultivate their own food.
• Permanent settlements were eventually established as a result.
• Along with this, they now started to domesticate animals for their own purposes; this was also the time when the wheel was invented.

Summary

Human evolution is a long process and it took millions of years to transform primitive humans into present-day humans. As per numerous scientific investigations, it is thought that humans have developed from ape-like species. They could not even walk straight and they used to live like animals. As the brain grew in size over time, the evolution of the homo sapiens began. Their social conduct also evolved gradually. Additionally, they developed excellent toolmaking skills. Humans could also store knowledge due to their more advanced brains. This enhanced the speed of cultural adjustment and now modern humans were no more dependent on biological advancements.

Frequently Asked Question

1. What color was the original human being on earth?
Ans: Early humans had a pale skin, similar to the chimpanzee(closest relative of humans), . Dark skin was first a feature of early Homo sapiens which developed between 1.2-1.8 million years ago.

2. How come people have two legs?
Ans: One of the factors, that allowed humans to evolve from their prehistoric ape-like forebears was the ability to walk on two legs. Being able to move around on two legs saved energy and freed up the arms for tasks like hunting, making simple tools, and interacting with objects.

3. Are there still Neanderthals existing?
Ans: Around 430,000 years ago, fossils resembling Neanderthals were first discovered. The earliest Neanderthals are thought to have existed between 130,000 and 40,000 years ago, beyond which no physical proof of them can be found.

Introduction

The discovery of iron led to a revolution in Indian agriculture. By the end of the Chalcolithic Age, the Indian subcontinent had been using iron for around 2500–3000 years. Now, during this time, the tools made of iron and steel were stronger and more efficient than those made of bronze. Manufacturing iron tools enhanced farming and contributed to a bigger economy.

The creation of iron farming implements greatly facilitated the agricultural process and contributed to a larger increase in farm produce. People were able to adapt to a stable existence at that time through commercial farming (trade between other nations) and subsistence farming, which helped people produce in huge amounts. Iron implements contributed to the prosperity of tiny kingdoms in a similar manner.

Indian Iron History from a Historical Perspective

In India, evidence of iron tools has been found in megalithic (big stone) burial sites. These sites in India comprised modern-day Karnataka and Kerala in the south, extended to some parts of central India and trans-Vindhyas. In many of these sites, the use of iron perhaps started by the end of the Neolithic and during the Chalcolithic age. 

Our Rig Veda and Yajur Veda contain references to the process of obtaining metal from ores. Iron was the third metal mentioned in Rig Vedic hymns, after gold and silver. Iron utilisation saw rapid development around 1400 BCE. Early evidence of iron smelting was thought to have been produced by tribal craftspeople in several places. 

Agriculture and the Iron

Agriculture underwent a turning point with the invention of iron. People have now begun to create powerful, long-lasting, and simple-to-form tools and weapons with this metal. 

This allowed them to create a compact, extremely sharp, and lightweight instrument that was challenging to craft out of stone or copper. Sickles, axes, spades, and plough shares are a few examples of significant tools. They could now plough difficult land thanks to these.

As agricultural output increased, people started to stay put in one location for longer periods of time, as opposed to moving around in search of food and water. The size of kingdoms also grew as a result. 

The king was now in need of money or taxes from the population to maintain his country. Farmers became the principal taxpayers because agriculture was one of the kingdom’s most productive industries. The monarchs used to encourage farmers by making arrangements for canals, wells, and tanks to boost farm output to increase the revenue from this field.

Iron Tools

The use of iron tools fundamentally altered human life. A new type of permanent community emerged with the large-scale production of tools. The provision of military equipment like iron swords and other weapons that were utilised by armies and soldiers for fighting wars and conflicts, not only changed agriculture but also established the groundwork for large kingdoms and empires. Since the idea of communities had begun to take hold, individuals had started to build their spheres of influence.

People, now, began establishing ties with other nations as well. The development of agriculture and the subsequent creation of surplus grain opened the door for thriving trades. Tools were traded for grain, which resulted in the growth of trade customs. Over time, as trade increased, coins started to be used in transactions. Numerous Roman coins have been discovered by archaeologists in India.

Summary

The discovery of iron altered the course of history. Its discovery was unexpected, but its expansion took centuries. The tribals of India carried the traditions from antiquity to the modern era. When the famous Damascus sword was being prepared with indigenous steel-making technology, India was the workshop of the entire world. The invention of the iron in some ways created the groundwork for a civilization that was more civilised. However, as with any historical event, there were ups and downs in India’s iron history due to a variety of internal and external factors.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1.How did Early Humans Discover Iron and use it for Tools?
Ans: Humans had figured out how to extract iron from rocks and turn them into implements made of iron. Iron was first discovered in rocks, or iron ore, which was melted at extremely high temperatures. The iron was heated and hammered while in contact with charcoal, resulting in the iron being stronger and more durable.

2.What Effects did the Iron Age have on Human Life?
Ans: The development of iron tools aided in making farming easier and more efficient. Farmers could plough tougher soil, allowing them to harvest new crops and free up time for more leisure activities. Throughout the Iron Age, new crop and livestock varieties were introduced at various times.

3. How did Early People’s lives Alter between the Bronze and Iron Ages?
Ans: Around 1200 BCE was the start of the Bronze Age. Tools from this era were constructed of bronze. Iron, which was more durable and powerful than bronze and so brought about the Iron Age, soon took its place.

Introduction

After the downfall of the Mughal empire, many Mughal provinces became an independent kingdom. These independent nations were known as successor states. These successor nations included Bengal, Hyderabad, and Awadh. 

Rise of Autonomous States

As regional kingdoms became aware of the Mughal emperors’ frailty, they started to declare their independence and challenge their power. The states of Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad, Mysore, Jat, and the Sikh state were among these autonomous states.

• Bengal: Murshid Quli Khan established this state in 1717 after moving his capital from Decca to Murshidabad. His son Shujauddin took over as his successor. Alivardi Khan (who prevented the French East India Company from abusing its privileges), Siraj-ud-daulah (who fought in the renowned Battle of Plassey in 1757), Mir Jafar, and Mir Qasim were a few of the state’s other notable rulers.

• Awadh: In 1722, Sadat Khan established the state of Awadh, which is now known as Uttar Pradesh. He participated in the plot against the Sayyid brothers, which led to more manuals being handed to him. He was afterwards forced to enter a new principality of Awadh after being expelled from the court.

• • Hyderabad: Qilich Khan, who was bestowed the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk by the Mughal emperor Farruksiyar, formed the independent kingdom of Hyderabad. The selection of Mubriz Khan as the viceroy of Deccan did not sit well with him. Thus, in the battle of Shkr-Kheda, Qilich Khan engaged him in combat and ultimately killed him.

• Mysore: Mysore was a significant state that proclaimed its independence. It was allotted at the intersection of the eastern and western ghats while the Wodeyars were in power. This region was under the scrutiny of numerous powers and became a perpetual battleground as a result. In the end, Haider Ali was in charge of it, and he had to deal with a lot of consequences for this.

• • The Jat state: The agriculturalist Jat settlers of Delhi, Mathura, and Agra began to rebel against the Mughal rule because of Aurangzeb’s repressive policies. Finally, Bharatpur, the Jat state, was founded by Churaman and Badan Singh.

• The Sikh state: To defend their faith, Guru Gobind Singh turned the Sikhs into a militant group. During the Nadir Shan and Ahmed Shah Abdali invasion, the Sikhs consolidated their power.

The Nizam’s Army

Asaf-Jah sometimes referred to as Nizam-ul-Mulk, founded the state of Hyderabad. He was thus the state’s first ruler (Nizam). He possessed sizable and powerful armed forces that were further split into two groups: regular forces and irregular forces. Imperial Service Troops, Golconda Brigade, and Myseram Regiment were all part of the structured, modern regular army. The irregular one included individuals from many regions or ethnic groups, including Afghans, Sikhs, Jats, Turks, Rohillas, etc.

The Private Military, which was Organized by Nizam

A private military is primarily a type of armed force that is more loyal to an individual or group of individuals than it is to a country or state. During the British Raj in India, a leader of the Muslim nationalist group MIM (Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen) by the name of Bhadur Yar Jung established the private armed force known as Razakars in Hyderabad. During the rule of Nizam Osman Ali (the final Nizam), it was effectively organized and made more turbulent by Qasim Razvi. Because they killed so many people, these Razakars were seen as being extremely ruthless and ferocious.

Duties and Responsibilities

Hyderabad was offered the option of joining either India or Pakistan in 1947, during the period of independence. Osman Ali Asaf Jah, the last Nizam of this state, rejected the notion and opted to keep it as a separate princely state. Qasim Razvi sent out the Razakars to guard the survival of Hyderabad’s princely state and to oppose the state’s incorporation into the Dominion of India. As a result of this military force’s extreme brutality, many people were slain in the Telangana and Marathawada regions. They even killed individuals they suspected of being opposed to the concept of princely states. Five days of the fighting occurred between Indian soldiers and the Razakars.

In the end, the Indian army routed the Razakar, and Razvi was detained until being permitted to leave for Pakistan. Meanwhile, Hyderabad was included in the Indian empire through Operation Polo

Summary

Numerous local kingdoms rose to power and proclaimed their independence from the Mughal empire by taking advantage of the Mughal emperors’ weaknesses. These nations began preserving their armed forces and collaborating against the Mughals. These independent nations saw the emergence of Hyderabad, Bengal, Punjab, Mysore, and other regions as well. Few of these princely nations even resisted joining India even after the British left office because their monarchs desired to keep their full independence. Hyderabad was one of these states, and it had its private army, the Razakars.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1.Why was Hyderabad known as the city of Nizams?
Ans. Because Qilich Khan of the Asaf Jahi dynasty, who was given the title of Nizam, founded Hyderabad, it became known as the city of Nizam. Following him, the same dynasty’s six additional Nizams ruled Hyderabad.

2.What was the Tripartite Treaty?
Ans. Ranjit Singh signed the tripartite agreement with Shah Shuja, the English firm, and themselves, agreeing to let the British forces travel through Punjab in exchange for their approval to install Shah Shuja as the ruler of Kabul.

 3. What was Operation Polo?
Ans. The police action of the newly independent India against Hyderabad in 1948 was known as “Operation Polo.” Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the Indian Home Minister, gave the order for Indian troops to attack and annex the princely state of Hyderabad.

4. Why is the Battle of Plassey Important in Indian History?
Ans. Siraj-ud-daulah and the East India Company engaged in combat at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Because it cemented the British military dominance in Bengal and laid the groundwork for the British Empire in India, this conflict had a significant impact on Indian history.

5. Mention the Reforms made by Tipu Sultan.

• Economic reforms: establishing trade relations by sending ambassadors abroad. 
• Revenue reforms: it included the elimination of the jagir system, a reduction in the hereditary ownership of poligars, and initiatives to elevate the status of the peasantry. 
• Military reforms: it included the organization of the army along European lines and the construction of two dockyards for modern navy ships.

Introduction

One of the greatest kings in Indian history was Ashoka the Great. In Ashoka’s life, the Kalinga War marked a turning point. He was upset to witness so much carnage and ruin throughout that conflict. He was highly affected by Buddhist doctrine and abandoned all forms of violence. Furthermore, he advocated the “Dhamma” policy, which accepted the tenets of Buddhism, while keeping in mind non-violence and compassion. The Sanskrit term “Dharma,” which denotes religious and moral obligation, is the root of the word “dhamma.” For all living things to coexist happily on this planet, Ashoka intended to propagate good moral ideals among the populace through this policy.

The Dhamma Policy of Ashoka

After the Kalinga War, Ashoka became a Buddhist and began to follow and propagate Buddhist ideas. In addition, he developed a new “dhamma” policy that emphasised non-violence, compassion, and peace. 

• He never made a big deal out of any complicated sacrifices or rites in this. After that, he gave up on his plan to conquer more territory and subjugate other cultures.
• He decided to become “Dhamma Mahamatta,” a travelling preacher of the Dhamma, to spread its teachings throughout his empire. Even his son and daughter were dispatched to Sri Lanka to propagate the Dhamma. 
• Secularism, which did not focus on any single religion but rather respected all religions, was the foundation of his Dhamma. He never forced the Dhamma on his subjects; instead, they were persuaded and came to accept it.
• He set an example for others to follow by adhering to this policy himself in a very strict manner. On numerous rocks and structures, he carved his edicts in languages used by regular people. So that everyone living in his empire might read, comprehend, and apply the “Dhamma” to their daily life.

Dhamma of Ashoka’s Principles

The Buddha’s teachings served as an inspiration for Ashoka’s Dhamma. His Dhamma’s concepts were quite straightforward and easily understood by the populace. Ashoka was more interested in using persuasion than regulation and imposition to spread this policy. The guiding concepts of his strategy are as follows:

• Ashoka wished for his followers to adhere to the non-violence, or ahimsa concept toward all living things, including people and animals. To strengthen the Empire at the time, which was quite common, he abandoned the idea of war for territorial expansion. Additionally, he preached against harming or killing animals.
• Respect for parents and other adults: He counselled kids to always respect and obey their parents and other adults. Similarly, parents and elders are required to be compassionate and kind toward their young charges.
• He emphasised the need for us to exhibit generosity toward everyone by choosing the way of kindness, love, harmony, and respect. He recommended charitable giving to the poor and turn toward slaves, servants, and animals to achieve this. Respect should be shown for one another. We shouldn’t abuse our position and influence. Instead, we ought to think about how we may be kind to others.
• He proclaimed via his Dhamma that one should appreciate those who practise different religions. He did not advocate joining a specific religion or turning to a specific deity. Furthermore, he granted everyone in his kingdom the freedom to follow their principles and to live their lives as they saw fit, and he vowed that the government would never force a specific religion on its people. Additionally, he favoured peaceful coexistence among all races, religions, and creeds. His goal was to create harmonious relationships between many aspects of society to eventually unite the populace behind shared values and rule a tranquil, huge empire.

Summary

The Dhamma of Ashoka was mostly derived from Buddhist teachings. After the Kalinga conflict, he implemented this policy, which caused the loss of many lives and left him feeling guilty, and sorry for himself. He was able to keep his empire pleasant and harmonious by using the Dhamma. In a sense, he was able to eradicate socio-political instability in his empire by upholding the values of mutual kindness, respect for all religious beliefs, compliance with authority figures, and consideration for younger people. He also rejected superstitious practices and advocated for ahimsa. In essence, he created a secular and liberal empire with this approach, freeing him from the necessity to impose a particular faith on his subjects. 

Frequently Asked Questions

1.Why did Ashoka and Kalinga Fight?
Ans: Kalinga, now Odisha, was a powerful maritime nation. The power might open up commercial opportunities for the Mauryan Empire with nations in Southeast Asia. Ashoka, therefore, desired to incorporate that country within his empire.

2.Why was Ashoka referred to as “Ashoka the Great”?
Ans: One of the kings who became known as the greatest king in Indian history was Ashoka. This was a result of his distinct management style, which allowed him to oversee such a sizable empire while preventing any physical injury to anyone.

3.How does Ashoka’s Dhamma still have value in Modern Society?
Ans: Yes, Ashoka’s Dhamma principle—which advocated a moral way of life centred on showing respect for all living things—is still very much important in today’s culture. It also emphasised the need for tolerance, which is essential for surviving in a nation as varied and multi-religious as India.