Category: Social Studies

Introduction

In the Mughal empire, the Maratha union was one of the most formidable kingdoms. Between 1674 and 1818, the Marathas ruled. During this period, they controlled the Deccan region of India. During the eighteenth century, they posed a serious threat to the Mughals and the British Empire.  Guerilla warfare was well mastered by these Marathas. The Maratha confederacy was divided into different states under different chieftains such as Gaikwad, Sindhias, Holkars, and Bhonsle’s. Bhonsle was a powerful clan in Maratha, and Shahji and Shivaji were two of its important warriors.

The Maratha empire

The Bhonsle chief Shivaji laid the foundation for the Maratha empire. Before him, the Marathas were scattered among many confederacies in Deccan. He thus unified all the confederacies and gave them a hard time to the Mughals. The Marathas expanded from the Deccan to northern India after Mughal rule ended, leading to the establishment of the Maratha Empire. In 1761, Ahmad Shah Abdali challenged Maratha’s authority at the Third Battle of Panipat to determine who would inherit the Mughal dominion.

Other than the weak and waning Mughal rule, other factors that contributed to the rise of the Marathas included: the Maratha nationalism fostered by Bhakti movement leaders like Tukaram, Eknath, and Ramdas; their geographic location, which gave them access to ready-made rock forts to govern their kingdoms; and the political unrest in the south.

Who ruled the Maratha Kingdom?

The Maratha empire was divided into five confederacies; Peshwas of Pune, the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Bhonsles of Nagpur, the Holkars of Indore, and the Scindhias of Gwalior. Shivaji brought together all of these confederacies under the Maratha Empire. Under his leadership, the Marathas were always a political threat to the Mughals and the British. Maratha power passed to Sambhaji after Shivaji died. He was also among the strongest warriors, never losing a battle to the Mughals. Aurangzeb executed him in the end. A civil war broke out between Shahu and Tarabai after Sambhaji.

Shahu ascended to the kingdom with the aid of Balaji Vishwanath, and in exchange, he named Balaji Vishwanath Peshwa or Chief Minister. Because Shahu was a weak leader, Peshwa gradually began to gain control of the realm. The first Peshwa who established Maratha dominance was Balaji Vishwanath.

 What was the title of Shivaji?

In 1674, the Maratha warrior Shivaji received the honorific title “Chhatrapati.” The Sanskrit name Chhatrapati was employed by the Marathas to designate a ruler. The word chatra in this title alludes to the top of an umbrella, and pati denotes the owner or master. Therefore, the term “Chatrapati” refers to a particular type of ruler who served as an umbrella to cover and secure his subjects. Shivaji used this title because it indicated a monarch who was also a protector, as opposed to the titles Raja or Maharaja, which only indicate a ruler.

Maratha empire during Peshwas Era

Territories that were formerly a part of Shivaji’s empire but had been seized by Aurangzeb were returned by Balaji Viswanath, the first Peshwa of Shahus. He also assisted the Sayyid brothers in deposing Farrukhsiyar, the Mughal emperor. Six Mughal provinces in the Deccan received the Sardeshmukhi and Chauth taxes from him. His son Baji RaoI succeeded him as Peshwa. The Maratha kingdom became an empire during his rule. He also overcame Nizam-ul-Mulk and signed the Durai Sarai pact, which gave him control of Malwa and Bundelkhand.

Balaji Baji Rao, commonly known as Nana Saheb, succeeded his father, Baji Rao I, as Peshwa. He extended Maratha territory into Punjab and Delhi. The Marathas’ conquest of Punjab also brought them into conflict with Ahmed Shah Abdali, and in the Third Battle of Panipat, which took place in 1761, the Marathas suffered a crushing defeat that resulted in the deaths of several Maratha leaders, roughly 28,000 soldiers, and Vishwas Rao and Sadashiv Rao Bhau.

The Decline of Martha’s empire

The subsidiary alliance signed by Baji Rao II at the tail end of the 18th century and the beginning of the first quarter of the 19th century marked the beginning of the Maratha kingdom’s decline. The decline of the Marathas was caused by several factors, including the following:

• Internal strife among Maratha chiefs from various confederacies jeopardized the empire’s unity. British people used this shortcoming to their advantage to advance their imperial goals.
• Instead of attempting to establish a structured empire, the Marathas were constantly used to pillage areas outside their control. As a result, they never made an effort to improve their subjects’ social, economic, or cultural circumstances. As a result, their people’s allegiance was lost.
• After the 18th century, the Marathas lacked effective leaders and were forced to engage the outstanding English generals in several conflicts, which served as another major factor in the fall of the Maratha empire.

Summary

One of the most powerful regional kingdoms to emerge in Deccan following the fall of the Mughal Empire was the Maratha empire. By extending its rule from the Deccan to the northern regions of India when Shivaji assumed the Maratha throne, the kingdom began to resemble an empire. The Peshwas, who always posed a severe threat to the Mughal rule after Shivaji, also contributed significantly to the growth of this kingdom. The British could see the kingdom’s fragility after the Marathas were crushed in the Third Battle of Panipat. And finally, the Maratha chieftain’s submission to the East India Company in 1818 marked the end of this kingdom.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What were Chauth and Sardeshmukhi?
Ans. Chauth was one-fourth of the total production that was given as a tax to the Marathas by non-Maratha territories as a token of safeguard for not invading these territories. Sardeshmukhi was the extra tax of 10% over Chauth that was to be paid as a homage to the Maratha ruler for ruling over non-Maratha lands.

2. What was the Guerilla warfare technique?
Ans. Guerilla warfare describes a style of conflict in which fighters with limited weapons participated rather than conventional military forces. These battles involved ambushes, raids, and surprise attacks.

3. Who was Ahmed Shah Abdali?
Ans. Afghanistan’s current government was established by Ahmed Shah Adali, who also served as king of the Durrani Empire. Eight times between 1748 and 1767, he invaded India. The Mughal empire suffered as a result of his repeated invasions.

Introduction

Gautama Buddha is a well-known personality who was a brilliant spiritual teacher and taught others the importance of life from the historic period. Although there were many spiritual leaders like Gautama Buddha, it was his spiritual wisdom that propelled him to fame. In the early years of his life, he began to pursue spirituality and put forth an effort to spread it amongst people. He established several religious communities and delivered life’s fundamental lessons. In order to share his beliefs with the common people, he traveled throughout north India. Incredible examples of Buddha’s wisdom can be found in his stories Among all tales, “Kisagotami and the Mustard Seeds” is one of the most well-known.

Story of Kisagotami

A young woman named Kisagotami used to live long ago. She was a married woman with a little son. At that time, a dreadful sickness swept over the village. People began to become ill and even start dying. The sickness affected Kisagotami’s son as well as other residents of that village. The young boy died of the disease. Kisagotami was so shocked that she had trouble accepting the loss of her son. She took her son to several persons and instructed them to provide medication and revive him back to life. Everyone was attempting to explain to her that her kid had passed away. However, she disregarded them all and went to different people in search of her son’s medications.

After some time, a noble individual informed her that while he was unable to provide her with a cure for her son, he knew someone who did. The man instructed the woman to speak with the Buddha at his monastery. After hearing what he had to say, Kisagotami went right there. The woman begged the Buddha to give her son some medicine to treat him so that he would live.

Buddha understood her condition and instructed Kisagotami to obtain mustard seeds from any house in the city. Kisagotami was delighted to hear this and she believed she could organize something so simple very easily. However, Buddha continued and said that he required mustard seeds from that house where no one had ever died. Hearing this instruction, In the village, she walked from door to door. Everyone was ready to provide her with seeds. Then she inquired as to if anyone had ever passed away in their home, to this every household responded that at least one or the other person had passed away in that house.

Kisagotami, meanwhile, realized that everyone had experienced the loss of a loved one at least once in their lifetime. She finally understood that no one in the world can escape death and that death is inevitable. She then buried her kid and recovered from the pain of losing him. She praised  Buddha for teaching her such a valuable lesson about life. She ultimately decided to follow Buddha.

Teachings of the Story

The legend around Kisagotami and the mustard seeds is well known. It portrays the story of a woman who was unable to cope with the agony of losing her son. And how her interaction with Buddha helped her discover the truth of life. The fundamental ideas of Buddha’s life philosophy are explained in the narrative, they are as follows-

• First, he emphasized the principle of impermanence known as Anicca. This means that nothing in this world is permanent, in his opinion. Everything undergoes a gradual transformation. It is a natural cycle that must occur.
• Impermanence gives birth to suffering, also known as dukkha, which is a very challenging issue. It is the second Buddhist theory. He claimed that pain is a natural part of life. Both our mental and physical wellness are under attack. We have to progressively accept that. More sorrow is brought into people’s lives by their desire to maintain the status quo.
• To live happy lives, we must accept all of life’s situations rather than fighting nature and its laws. The absence of a permanent soul, known as Anatta, completes the three pillars of existence. This proves that no living thing possesses an eternal soul. The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth pervades all of human existence. We should also learn to be selfless and the constant ups and downs of life shouldn’t have an impact on us.
• These three facets of life’s existence are relevant to everyone in the world. Without Buddha’s theories, mankind could have suffered more as a result of their limitless ambitions.
• After coming to terms with the reality of the world’s transience, Kisagotmai went back to Buddha and made the decision to enter his monastery as a nun.

Summary

Nirvana, which is a Buddhist euphemism for salvation, was one of the religion’s key principles. Kisagotami began traveling the path to nirvana and eventually rose to the position of a respected nun in one of the Buddhist monasteries. Buddha discussed the idea of Nirvana throughout the entire narrative. Nirvana describes a person’s state as being devoid of worldly desires. The attachment to loved ones is what causes the sorrow. Only nirvana can release individuals from attachments and stop the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. People from all across the world are currently dealing with circumstances similar to Kisagotami. In the end, people must realize that the world is filled with sorrow and that desires are its primary source. In order to prevent suffering, one must conquer desire, which opens the door to nirvana.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Where did Kisagotami join as a nun?
Ans: As a nun, Kisagotami joined the Jeetvana monastery, which at the time housed the Buddha. It is present-day Uttar Pradesh.

2. Why didn’t Buddha inform Kisagotami about the death of her son?
Ans: Buddha wished to help her comprehend and come to terms with the reality of life.

There was a probability that Kisagotami would not have accepted the truth about the death of her son if he had told her directly and would remain in her sadness for a long time.

3. How can one reach nirvana?
Ans: The eight-fold route, also known as the Ashtangika Marga or eight-fold path, consists of the following: observation, determination, meditation, memory, speech, means of livelihood, action, and exercise. It is the way to reach nirvana.

Introduction

The late 18th century in France was a period of turmoil and hardship in society. People were constantly protesting against the reigning monarch Louis XVI, the working class and peasantry were becoming increasingly unhappy, the society was experiencing an economic crisis, people were protesting for their rights etc. On July 14, 1789, people started opposing the monarch violently, as the rumour was spread that the king had instructed the soldiers to fire on protesters. They made a military of 7000 people and stormed the state fortress jail, the Bastille, looking for ammunition. They destroyed government buildings and other facilities. This was the beginning of the French Revolution.

Society during 18th century France

French society is divided into 3 classes,

• The first class-which comprises clergy and wealthy people.
• The second class-which comprises noblemen.
• The third-class -comprises the other remaining society which includes all people, from merchants, businessmen, small peasants, servants etc.
• Both the upper classes had all the privileges while the third class played for their privileges and lived in poverty, with a lack of food and political recognition.
• With the population growth, the amount of food started falling short. And due to bad harvest, there was a severe scarcity of food. This led to fights between people for food and other resources.
• Due to the shortage of grains, the prices of the available food grains were increased to a great extent and as a result, the people of the third-class experienced food scarcity even more.
• The social conditions during the 18th century were very bad and hence were one of the reasons for the French Revolution to take place.

The outbreak of the revolution

The outbreak of the revolution took place in the following way-

• The controller general of finances, Charles de Calonne, organized the assembly of nobles in February 1787 to discuss the increase in tax to eliminate the budget deficit. He proposed the privileged class should be taxed, but the assembly rejected that proposal.
• The monarch convened the assembly of estate generals on May 5, 1789. The clergy, the noble estate, sent 300 representatives, while 600 individuals were sent by the third estate which had to assemble in the back of the room.
• In this assembly, each estate had one vote to give despite the number of individuals. The third estate wanted that each member should get the right to vote in the assembly. This demand of the third class was not accepted, and hence they walked out of the assembly.
• The representatives of the Third State then gathered on June 20 in the Versailles Hall where they proclaimed themselves to be the national assembly with the mission of drafting the French constitution to restrain the monarch’s authority. The first estates also joined hands with the third estate and the national constituent assembly was formed.
• In October, the assembly was introduced to restrict the powers of the king and distribute them amongst different institutions.
• The national assembly was indirectly elected and granted the authority to enact laws. Men over 25 who paid taxes were given the ability to vote.
• Although the king had signed the constitution, he secretly negotiated with the king of Prussia and other neighbouring rulers to send the troops to end the national assembly, but before it could happen the national assembly itself declared war on Austria and Prussia in 1792.
• Later that year, the assembly reassembled and decided to arrest the royal family.
• As part of the reforms, all men over 21 were now permitted to vote, regardless of their income.
• Following the election, the national assembly changed into the national convention, which on September 21, 1792, declared France to be a republic and dissolved the monarchy.

Summary

One of the most significant historical occurrences was the French Revolution. It was a struggle between the common people and France’s autocratic ruler. It was the first time that individuals battled for freedom and liberty. All subsequent revolutions were greatly impacted by the French Revolution, which marked a turning point in the struggle for liberty.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What exactly were tithes?
Ans: The church collected tithes as a form of interest tax. Tithes included one-tenth of the agricultural output.

2. Which club did the Jacobins belong to?
Ans: The Jacobins Club was an underground organization made up of regular people during the French Revolution that was instrumental in overthrowing the monarchy in 1792. This group included small peasants, shopkeepers, laborers etc.

3. Why did the enraged mob storm the Bastille?
Ans: An enraged mob broke into the Bastille early on July 14, 1789, and destroyed the structure because it was a symbol of the monarch’s repressive and tyrannical rule.

Introduction

A monastery is a location where spiritual activities are carried out, typically consisting of a group of structures. Monks and nuns, respectively, are the terms used to describe those who reside there. These are home to those who have decided to live in seclusion from civilization. These monasteries are situated where there is no disturbance. Here, individuals either lived in communities or alone. Monasteries are places where people go to remember the universal force through practices like prayer, chanting, etc.

Classification of Monasteries 

Based on the duties of the monks, there are various sorts of monasteries. Generally, there are four different types of monasteries:

Solitary type of Monastery

A person lives alone in a solitary monastery. He isolates himself from everything and tries to concentrate on his religion.

The monastery with the community system

It refers to a monastery where two or more individuals lived together as a group. Here, rigorous laws and customs are upheld.

Mendicant type of Monastery

The monks who live here must approach other individuals on foot to ask for alms. Therefore, monks found this form of monastic life to be rather challenging.

Combined Monastery 

Monks are supposed to play roles in societal institutions like hospitals and schools in this kind of monastery.

Monasteries in Ancient India 

Monastery of Buddhism

In about 400 BCE, the Buddhist Monastery was founded. Monks living in this type of monastery, are recommended to settle down for a while rather than move around. The Vassa retreats took place in parks, where wealthy followers used to donate to the sangha. Cenobitic monasticism, in which monks and nuns lived for a year in monasteries, evolved through time into the norm of the entire sangha residing in one region during the recess of the Vassa.

During the Buddhist era, many educational institutions were established. It became quite well-known and spread all over the world. Hemis Monastery in Ladakh, Tawang Monastery in Arunachal Pradesh, Rumtek Monastery in Sikkim, etc. are a few of the well-known Buddhist monasteries in India.

The Monastery of Christianity

In Egypt City, the first Christian monastery was established. Following that, monasteries were established in various locations. A cenobitic monastery was a brand-new sort of monastery that Pachomius introduced. The monks and nuns shared one space in this style of the monastery. Furthermore, they carried out every task, including working and worshipping, in unison. The monk who used to live by himself but took on all the duties was known as a hermit.

The Monastery of Hinduism

It is possible to date the Hindu Monastery’s existence to the prehistoric era. Hindu monasteries were constructed in the Vedic era. Mathas is the name of the monasteries. India is home to several well-known maths, including Chatur-Amnaya, Belur Math, Gorkana Matha, Kasi Matha, and Kathia Baba ka Sthaan in Vrindavan.

Monastery of Jainism

Mahavira introduced Jainism in the fifth century BC. He built his Monastery so that he might engage in spirituality. The five pillars of the monastic way of life were honesty, non-possession, non-stealing, non-violence, and consistency in one’s sexual behavior. One of the most well-known religions in the world was Jainism.

Importance of Monasteries 

Monasteries have a significant influence on those who pursue spirituality and come from various religious backgrounds. These monasteries have an enormous impact on social life in addition to having an impact within their walls. The monastery is home to several schools, universities, and other educational institutions. Additionally, it extends outside of India. The monastery has contributed significantly to the realm of medical services in addition to serving educational purposes. The following are some of the monastery’s salient characteristics:

• Monasteries were founded to assist universal power and in pursuit of information about it.
• Spreading knowledge among common people is one of a monastery’s most significant responsibilities.
• Monasteries also include significant aspects related to the distribution of food, clothing, and other accessories.
• In the monastery, monks live and care for the residents without regard to cost or value. Additionally, they assist unprivileged families by giving them a contribution.

Summary

People living in the monastery go about their everyday lives, practicing their responsibilities and tasks regularly. To allow monks and nuns to focus peacefully on their spiritual lives, monasteries are typically built-in places that are removed from social and political influences. Monasteries have a significant impact on how society develops on emotional, social, and cultural levels. The monasteries have undergone significant modification and development in modern times. These monasteries now provide a variety of facilities and cutting-edge technologies. These days, the location is visited by people, who are accommodated.

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Name the oldest monasteries in the world.
Ans. The oldest monasteries in existence are those of St. Macarius (Deir Abu Makar) and St. Anthony (Deir Mar Antonios), both of which are governed by the Patriarch of the Coptic Orthodox Church.

2. Who was Pachomius?
Ans. Pachomius, commonly known as St. Pachomius, founded the Christian community monasticism known as cenobitic. Through his teachings on various ascetical practices, he inspired thousands of Christians to begin living as such.

3. Why did people join monasteries in ancient times?
Ans. People in ancient times were upset with the superstitions and complexities of religion. Therefore, people began settling into monasteries to live modest lives to find solace, enjoy independence, and overcome the misery of the world.

4. Which is the oldest monastery in India and which religion it belongs to?
Ans. Although not the biggest, India’s oldest monastery is Hemis Monastery in Ladakh. The monastery reportedly dates to the eleventh century and was re-established in 1652. The revered thangkas and famous, historic treasures are kept in this monastery.

5. Why didn’t Islam support the monastic culture?
Ans. The Islamic faith holds that since humans and God have a direct line of communication, they do not require a mediator like a monk or a nun to do so.

Introduction

The Delhi sultanate was the largest empire in medieval India, yet even then, it did not have sovereignty over the vast majority of the Indian peninsula. The chieftains of many petty kingdoms ruled their own territories. These chieftains lived in forts that were impossible to get into since they were extremely defensive and strong.

Chieftains

A chieftain is known as the leader or the head of a tribe or a clan. They are like kings, who rule a particularly small clan or tribe and he is responsible for their protection.  Due to the size of the Indian subcontinent, the Delhi Sultans were unable to rule numerous areas. The Sultans had no influence over remote areas like south India, Bengal, etc. The Sultanate armies were unable to approach remote areas due to forest cover, uneven lands or hilly terrains. Due to the Sultanate’s lack of penetration in these areas, the rule of Chieftains became established, and the population began acting as an independent community.

Fortifications of the Chieftains

Ibn-Battuta, a Moroccan traveler who served as Qazi in Mohammad tughluq’s court, wrote in his works about these chieftains. He said that there were other minor territories that were still autonomous and were ruled by chieftains. Those chiefs used to construct their forts on rocky ground, on hills, or inside bamboo-covered forests. Since an average army could not pass through those dense bamboo trees, the chieftains of those tribes were shielded from the emperor. The chieftains well-secure themselves in these forts built on hills, rocky and uneven difficult locations. They kept water, animals, and food grains inside the forts. Since they have all of these arrangements in place, they are totally independent and they stay inside the fort as long as they want. According to Ibn-Batutta, bamboos in India are not hollow, and when they are interlaced, they form a difficult-to-cross barricade that is also untouched by fire.

Types of forts

The fort’s main objective was to keep the enemy at bay while protecting the chieftains. The monarchs constructed a variety of forts, all of which were difficult to breach and simple to defend. Different kinds of forts constructed are given below-

• Desert Fort or Dhanva Durg- 
  • The term “Desert Fort” or “Dhanva Durg” makes it apparent that these forts were constructed in the middle of the desert. The enemy was naturally kept at bay by the desert.
  • The advantage of this fort was that soldiers could easily observe attackers from a distance, allowing them to be ready for them when they approached.
  • These forts were mostly constructed in Rajasthan by Rajput tribes.
  • These forts were occasionally erected on high ground to provide a better view of the approaching enemy.

• Mud fort or Mahi Durg-
  • Mud fort, also known as Mahi Durg or Rampart fort, had thick mud and bricks covering all of its exterior walls.
  • The fort became significantly more durable and fire-resistant due to this layer.
  • Thick earthen walls acted as a shield and protected the chieftains.

• Water forts
  • In medieval India, these kinds of forts were highly well-known. The kings used to construct their forts in the midst of water bodies, which gave them an additional line of defense.
  • An army couldn’t enter a fort on foot, it had to employ boats, and the men stationed in these forts were prepared to sink boats and kill their soldiers.
  • An illustration of a water fort is the Murud Janjira fort in Maharashtra.

• Hill fort or Giri Durg–
  • Hill forts, also known as Giri Durgs, were forts constructed on hills or a summit. The fort was also surrounded by mountainous terrains.
  • An army would have a very tough time attacking such a fort because the hills were steep and had narrow routes for climbing.
  • The soldiers had an excellent view of a great distance because it was on an elevated platform.
  • The soldiers had time to prepare for battle because the enemies could be seen clearly from a great distance.

• Forest forts or vans forts
  • Forts known as “forest forts” or “vans forts” were constructed in the center of dense forests, making them incredibly difficult to overcome.
  • The forts were initially difficult for the enemy to locate because of the thickness of the forest. As a result, large troops could not enter all at once and conquer this area.
  • The forests also work as camouflage and allowed setting various traps for the attacking soldiers.
  • In his publications, the Moroccan traveler also discusses these kinds of forts. He asserts that numerous petty chieftains once constructed forts in the forest to establish their independence from the sultanate’s power. These forts included all the things which are required for the survival of a clan.

Summary

India’s history has always included forts Although there were many dynastic and political upheavals in medieval India, the building of robust forts remained constant. Each chieftain, emperor, and the king built forts to protect themselves from attacks. In Ibn-, Battuta’s literature we discovered evidence of chieftains strengthening themselves in forest strongholds to fight off raids by powerful rulers. Forts were constructed in such a manner that they had all the resources which are required for the survival of man.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What architectural designs did Rajputana forts use?
Ans: Rajputanas employed the slab-and-beam method, in which stones were placed one above another. Coping stones were used to close up the gaps.

2. What kind of fort did Alauddin Khilji construct for the first time?
Ans: Alauddin Khilji constructed the city fortress complex model for the first time in India. In this fort, the entire city was protected.

3. What were the special qualities of the forts build by the sultans?
Ans: The sultans imported the arch and dome construction method, which the Arabs had adapted from the Romans. In the Indian subcontinent, the Arch and Dome style rose to prominence. During the reign of Alauddin Khilji, it peaked.

Introduction

Romans practiced Christianity as their official religion, and after the fall of the Roman empire, it quickly expanded throughout Europe. Feudal lords and wealthy landowners embraced Christianity. Christianity gradually began to rule daily life in Europe. Pagans (non-Christians) were denied access to state institutions and even punished. The Church rose to become both the most influential institution and the largest landowner. Throughout the medieval era in Europe, the church and the king took on the role of the Piller of the feudal society. The Kings and the churches developed close ties. King Charlemagne gained the support of the Pope by accepting the title of “Holy Roman Emperor” from him in 800 AD in France.

The Three orders

French priests introduced the concept of three sections of society. The three estates or orders in medieval European civilization were established on the principle of grouping people into specific categories.

There were three divisions within society-

• First order- The clergy
• Second order- The nobility
• Third order- The peasantry

First order- The clergy

• The clergy was the earliest and most powerful order in medieval Europe. They were the ones who led society’s spiritual life through prayer.
• This order included all clergy members who worked for the Church, including priests, popes, bishops, and cardinals and they occupied the highest position on the social scale.
• The church possessed its own laws, property, and the authority to tax farmers.
• The church leader was the pope and the European Christians were led by the clergy.
• Physically deformed people could not be priests.
• The priests maintained monogamy.
• Bishops used to reside in magnificent palaces and enjoy an opulent lifestyle since they had enormous estates at their disposal.
• This elite had control over the social, cultural, and religious norms of feudal society in addition to managing the religious sector of society.
• The peasants paid an unofficial tax known as the “tithe” that represented one-tenth of their produce to the church.
• The second group of devoted Christians known as monks existed among Christians in the Medieval era in addition to the Church.

Second order- The nobility

• The second tier, following the priests, was the noble class. They were in a prominent position in the government.
• In general, warriors were thought to be under this category.
• The nobles had various advantages and were free people with property rights.
• They were only required to fight for and support their master in battle. It was their one and only duty.
• They received compensation in the form of land in return for this.
• They serve the king as a vassal, which requires them to perform duties for their lord.
• They ruled as the king and were the lords of their domain.
• The peasant served as the nobility’s vassal and appeared in their court for legal proceedings.
• Armies of the Nobility were known as “feudal levies”.
• Large landowners owned manor houses, which were referred to as manorial estates.
• The manorial estates controlled the lands in the villages, where the peasants lived and worked.
• They had everything they needed and led a luxurious life.
• Another class of nobles was the knight, who received a title and a plot of land from the king.
• Knights were expert warriors who made a commitment to fight for their lord whenever necessary.

The third order: The Peasantry

• The third and lowest class in society was the peasant. They were farmers and manual laborers. They had no luxuries or proper recognition in the society.
• The men were forced to fight as foot troops when the monarch required them.
• Peasant women and children were required to work for lords.
• There are two types of peasants- the Free Peasants and the other the Unfree Peasants of Serfs.

Free peasants-

• They owned their own land and served as the lord’s tenants.
• Women and children had to work in the lords’ households for a set amount of time and the lord received all the proceeds none was given to the peasant class.
• The males had to serve in the military for at least forty days every year.
• Additionally, they had to perform community service tasks like repairing the well, creating new roads, etc.

Serfs or Unfree Peasants

• Serfs worked on the lord’s land for free and received no pay.
• The lords had complete control over the serfs, and they were not permitted to leave the estates.
• Even to marry, the surfs had to get their lord’s approval.

Summary

Based on their occupation and socioeconomic standing, European society was divided into three orders or classes during the medieval era. The clergy was the highest and most powerful order, nobility was the second most powerful order, and peasants were the third and lowest order. The clergy included priests and people involved in religious pursuits. The nobles were lords and kings who belonged to the military class. They controlled the most land. The majority of people in society were peasants, who were farmers and slave laborers who served the lords.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Who were monks?
Ans: The faithful Christians known as monks had lonely lives. They were not Church members. Monks led a simple life in contrast to clerics. They lived in monasteries or abbeys. Monks swore to spend the rest of their lives cultivating and praying in the abbeys. The abbeys were generally located far from any populated areas. In contrast to the church, it was accessible to both sexes. Monks weren’t permitted to get married. They contributed to the dissemination of the arts, and several works of writing from the late 13th and early 14th centuries describe them.

2. What was the impact of the churches on society?
Ans: The church made an effort to mold the social environment and living circumstances to the Christian way of life, in the following ways-

• Churches began commemorating Christ’s birth and the day of his resurrection.
•  New Christian holy days have taken the place of pagan holidays.
• Peasants would enjoy the fact that they didn’t have to work on Holy Day.
• People began going on pilgrimages to large churches or martyrs’ shrines.
• The custom of baptizing a newborn child became prevalent.
• The custom of holy days, when people were granted days off from labor to pray, evolved into holidays where people could relax and not go to work.

3. Who came up with the concept of social norms in society?
Ans: According to the French Bishop “Adalbero of Laon,” some people work, some people pray, and some people fight in society. The concept of three social orders was born from there, which led to the formation of The Three orders, Clergy, Nobility, and Peasantry in European society.

Introduction

India displayed political division and factionalism around the start of the sixteenth century. The strong Delhi Sultanate was afflicted with many issues. Their power was only limited in the vicinity of Delhi. Bahmani, Vijayanagar, and Deccan kingdoms were split up into smaller pieces. This was a golden opportunity for the Central Asian kings, who had been waiting to invade India and increase their dominance in this region. Babur was one such invader from Central Asia who, after losing power over his paternal principality of Farghana, set out to conquer the Indian subcontinent. Babur was the man who established the Mughal dynasty in India. He was the descendant of Genghis Khan and Amir Timur and was responsible for establishing the Mughal empire in India.

The Mughal Empire

After defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the initial Battle of Panipat in 1526, Babur laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire. The majority of the Indian subcontinent was covered in this empire until 1707, after which it began to wane due to weaker Mughals who were incapable to extend it. The Mughal kings governed India for more than three hundred years. The Mughal Empire was the first to exploit gunpowder technology to establish its dominance in India, hence it was also known as the “Gunpowder Empire.”

One of the largest empires in medieval India, the Mughal empire had strongmen like Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan, and Aurangzeb.

Birth of the Mughal state

• The final Tughlaq monarch was vanquished by Babur in 1526, and he establishes the Mughal Empire.
• It was well maintained by his successors Akbar, Shahjahan, Jahangir, and Aurangzeb, who strengthened the empire by conquering challenges that stood in the way of its growth. To create a strong Mughal empire, they developed an effective administrative and bureaucratic structure.
• Akbar used a diplomatic strategy to gain the trust of his Hindu competitors as well as a policy of religious tolerance, which assisted him in establishing a sizable and powerful state.
• As a result of the Mughal era’s cultural advancement, advancement in architecture, and efficient administrative practices, emperors were able to consolidate their control over nearly the entirety of India, as well as portions of Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
• They developed a network of trade with other countries, hence bringing prosperity to India.

 Trade 

• During the Mughal era, an abundance of agricultural products drove the growth of a global commerce network.
• The Mughals encouraged trade both inside and outside their kingdom. They also offered international traders the necessary protection.
• Various reductions were made on the inland tax and customs fees.
• India used to export textiles made of silk, wool, and cotton back then, as well as spices, opium, and indigo.
• Horses, bullion, and opulent items like wine, corals, and perfumes were among the things they used to import for the royal family.

Bureaucracy and Division of the kingdom

• The Mughal government featured a centralized administration, with the King serving as the ultimate decision-maker.
• A group of ministers and officials, including Wazir, Mir Bakshi, Qazi, and Mir Saman, among others, aided him.
• The empire was further divided into 15 provinces called subas, each of which was governed by a subedar.
• These provinces were further subdivided into districts or sarkars and were governed by a faujdar.
• Furthermore, Parganas, which were managed by shiqdars, were used to split districts into smaller groups.
• Under the control of the Panchayats, muqaddams were in charge of all the villages in the parganas.
• The “Mansabdari” system was developed by the Mughals for effective military management. The Emperor hired, evaluated, and demoted the Mansabdars from their position as and when required.

Beginning the End of the Mughal empire

• Internal problems

By the conclusion of Aurangzeb’s reign, a lot of internal strife had already begun.

These tensions included a succession battle, problems administering a big empire, flaws in the Mansabdari system, an increase in the power of the nobles, and rebellions by Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats, and Satnamis.

• Fragments of the Mughal Empire

During the eighteenth century, the Mughal empire spread in northern and southern India, and hence managing them was difficult. Along with this, internal conflicts and persistent outside threats set the road for the empire’s decline.

The Mughal empire eventually broke up into two separate types of provincial states. The destabilization of the Mughal centralized political structure led to the rise of successor states like Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad.

The other was “new states,” which were founded by Mughal dynasty rebels such as the Maratha Confederacy, Jats, and Sikhs, who declared to be independent of Mughal dominion. The Mughal empire was divided into various pieces by the end of Aurangzeb’s rule.

• External rivals for power

By the second half of the eighteenth century, the weak Mughal kings after Aurangzeb were exploited by their foreign competitors. The Empire was utterly destroyed by foreign invaders like Ahmad Shah Abdali from Afghanistan and Nadir Shah from Iran.

The English East India Company (EEIC), which came for trading, was made aware of the Mughal Empire’s frailty. This gave them confidence that by controlling political matters, the British Empire may grow in India. Finally, the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was expelled by the British in 1857, thereby ending the Mughal era.

 Summary

India displayed political division and factionalism around the start of the sixteenth century. Delhi Sultanate was afflicted with problems. The lack of a centralized government and ongoing internal strife offered Babur the chance to end the Delhi Sultanate and usher in the Mughal Empire. The empire was at its height under the early Mughals’ control, but after Aurangzeb, when his successors proved unable to maintain the empire, it began to decline. Additionally, ongoing external obstacles include many invasions from the northwest and the eventual rise to power of the English which shook the foundation of the Mughal empire.

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Explain the Mansabdai system.
Ans: Mansab is the Arabic word for an office or rank. A mansabdar was a high-ranking officer. The Mansabdar was in charge of sustaining order and providing soldiers with instruction. The mansab, or rank, was assigned based on the significance and nature of the employment.

2. What was the Deccan policy of Aurangzeb? What effects did this policy have?
Ans: To subjugate the independent kingdoms in the south, Aurangzeb spent the last half of his reign in the Deccan.

His actions had the following results:

• Although he annexed Bijapur and Golconda, it was challenging for him to rule these kingdoms from Delhi.
• The state’s resources were depleted by his protracted conflict with the Marathas and his important time.
• During his absence in the north, various revolutions emerged.

3. What was the religious policy of Akbar?
Ans: Following is the religious policy of Akbar

• Akbar promoted religious tolerance, which was known as his Sulh-i-kul policy (universal peace).
• Jizyah (a tax on non-Muslims) and pilgrimage tax were eliminated by him.
• He constructed temples and even participated in Hindu holidays.
• Ibadat Khana was created by him for religious discourse.

Introduction

The Tughlaq dynasty, governed the Delhi sultanate in medieval India. It is a Muslim dynasty of Indo-Turkic descent. Its rule began in Delhi in 1320 when Ghazi Malik ascended to the throne as Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq. The Tughluq dynasty pursued an aggressive program of kingdom expansion. Ghiyassudin’s reign did not last long and in 1324, Mohammad Tughluq succeeded him as ruler. Between 1330 to 1335, the dynasty was at its height as a result of a military campaign directed by Muhammad ibn Tughluq. Most of the Indian subcontinent was under its authority. 1413 marked the end of the dynasty.

Sultan Muhammad bin Tuglaq 

Muhammad was well-educated as a child in the Quran, philosophy, Muslim law, medicine, astronomy, and logic. After the passing of his father Ghiyassudin tughluq in 1324, he was appointed the sultan of Delhi. His rule and personality were discussed by Ziauddin Barni and Ibn-Battuta in their separate writings called Tarikh-i-Firozshahi and Kitab-i-Rehlan. The sultan was described as loving and constantly ready for helping others. When he assumed power, the Muslim divines, known as Ulamas, did not support him. He was unable to get Sufis and Ulamas to join his cause. As a result, to reduce the Ulmas’ authority he replaced them with regular citizens. He proclaimed himself the Califa in order to establish his dominion and empire and called himself the Shadow of God. Tughluq waged numerous battles and pillaged numerous kingdoms before ascending to the position of the sultan of Delhi. He conquered, Warangal, and Mabar, and before returning to Delhi he even looted Odissa. During his reign, the Delhi sultanate began to grow.

Officials of Sultan Muhammad bin Tuglaq 

• Muhammad Tughluq was a rationalist and did not support orthodox behavior and neither followed religion blindly. As a reslut of this, the Ulamas did not support him in his cause and his campaign.
• Also, he felt that people should be appointed to posts in his administration based on their qualifications rather than their status in society.
• Hence, he appointed common, regular citizens to the administrative posts of the Ulmas.
• Some of the officials during his reign were Aziz Khummar, Firuz Hajjam, Manka Tabbakh, Ladha, and Pira and military commanders.
• Aziz Khummar was a wine distiller.
• Firuz Hajjam was a Barber
• Manka Tabbakh was a cook.
• Ladha and Pira were two gardeners
• Like various other Kings, Sultan Tughluq appointed various military commanders. These commanders were governors of specific places.

Administration

Due to the long-standing practice of making special slaves or bandagan the governor or administrator, the Tughluq Dynasty is frequently referred to as the Slave Dynasty. Aristocrats, wealthy landowners, or members of the Nobility were not chosen by Tughluq as administrators. He adhered to the long-standing custom of choosing slaves as administrators. These slaves received specialized training so they could only work for their masters. In contrast to their heirs, slaves were devoted to their masters and hence performed the tasks that their masters asked them to perform. This made them only name-sake administrators as all the orders were given by their masters themselves.

The decline of the Tuglaq dynasty

There were numerous reasons for the decline of the Tuglaq dynasty some of them are-

• Muhammad Tughluq lacked both patience and wisdom.
• Although he had a clear vision, he didn’t plan properly, which is why many of Muhammad Tughluq’s experiments were unsuccessful.
• These experiments included the transfer of capital, the use of token money, and a few agricultural changes.
• To feed his soldiers, he levied an additional tax on the Doab region.
• He attempted to conquer a large area, depleting his national resource.
• Due to his autocracy’s sluggishness and the opposition of his nobles, many of his experiments failed.

There was growing unrest against him in the mass as a result of these constant ongoing changes in rule and administration and his successors were unable to repair the harm he had caused, hence after his death in 1351, the Tughluq dynasty came to an end.

Summary 

Muhammad Tughluq ruled from 1324 to 1353. He was a capable leader who had an understanding of astronomy, philosophy, and religion. He was a capable combatant and a visionary leader. He appointed various people in his administration based on qualifications and not social status. Hence his officials included common people such as Aziz Khummar, Firuz Hajjam, etc. These people supported the king and help him rule the kingdom. He was known for his religious tolerance and is credited with elevating Hindus inside his government and also including them in his administration.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Give some good qualities of Muhammad Tughluq.
Ans: Some of the good qualities of Muhammad Tughluq are-

• He thought that people should be appointed to posts in his administration based on their qualifications rather than their standing in the social order.
• Being a logical thinker, Mohammad bin Tughluq had a liberal approach to religion.
• He opposed orthodoxy, and he interacted with both Muslim mystics and Hindu mystics.
• He ended the Ulamas’ stranglehold on the judiciary and appointed judges on the basis of their qualifications rather than their background
• He was the first sultan to grant Hindus important positions in his government.

2. Describe bandagans.
Ans: Bandagans were specifically trained slaves who were appointed as governors or administrators and trained for challenging political tasks. Slaves only remained faithful to their masters.

3.Why did the sultan decide to move the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad?
Ans: In order to have stronger control over southern India, the sultan moved the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad. He reasoned that having a second capital at Daulatabad would make it simpler to govern the south, but he eventually realized he had no influence over the region and decided to return to Delhi. But this change of capital became the main reason for his decline.

Introduction

The Mughal Dynasty, which ruled India for over two centuries, was one of the most significant. The Mughals created a reliable system for tax collecting. The earnings from the sale of land were the main source of income. Akbar categorized territories and established prices for each category. To oversee the empire’s financial system, the office of the diwan was established. Several institutions, such as the Jagirdari system, the Mansabdari system, and the Zamindari system, were developed during the Mughal dynasty.

Zabt

• Akbar established a strategy of evaluating every agricultural plot through ongoing surveys to ascertain the typical production from every type of land.
• These evaluations concentrated on factors including flood and drought conditions, during these natural disasters, peasants received relief.
• The Zabt or Zabti system was a method of revenue collection based on such assessments. The dahsala system was further derived from the Zabti system.
• Todar Mal, Akbar’s revenue minister, supervised this land revenue system.
• Between the years 1570 and 1580, Todar Mal carried out a survey of the land, crop yields, and product prices.
• On the basis of his assessment, he set a tax amount on each crop.
• Cash was the favored form of payment in the zabti system.

Who were Zamindars?

• During the Mughal era, a class of people known as zamindars possessed special privileges in the countryside.
• Although they were dependent on agriculture, they did not work in it.
• Zamindars were members of the rural nobility who might be local chieftains or heads of villages. They were large landowners, and their property was known as milkiyats.
• These lands were entirely under their authority and they had hereditary rights for these places.
• The majority of zamindars belonged to the higher caste, including Rajputs and Brahmans.

Role of Zamindars

• The zamindars enjoyed their property rights in the countryside and were free to continue their ancient customs.
• The most important role of the Zamindars was to collect taxes on behalf of the state and they were compensated for their services provided.
• They often fought with the peasants for the collection of taxes and they resolve this using their military strength.

Consolidation of zamindari

• Zamindari’s stabilization took a long time. To purchase zamindari, people from lower castes had to go through a number of procedures.
• The Zamindari was auctioned by the state during the Mughal era, and it was a long and tedious procedure.
• Jats and Rajputs increased their dominance in northern India by colonizing fresh agricultural land and purchasing it from the government.
• These Zamindars established themselves, transported peasants to these new arable lands, and assisted them in farming by providing loans and other resources.
• They kept making more money through this approach, which eventually increased their authority.
• Numerous settlements were created as a result of the emergence of new Zamindars and cultivable land. The milkiyat’s goods were enjoyed by the zamindars, who also had the legal right to sell them.
• During this time, haats—marketplaces where zamindars and people flocked to buy and sell produce—became more prevalent in villages.
• Although the Zamindars’ activities are commonly regarded as exploitative, there is little evidence of this in the historical archives.

Summary

The complicated bureaucracy was created as a result of the merger of large empires. Numerous institutions, like Mansabdar, Jagridar, and Zamindars, were part of the Mughal Empire. Land revenue and taxes are the kingdom’s primary sources of income. During Akbar’s reign, the revenue of a specific land was based on the assessment and evaluation of that land, and depending on this assessment different tax amounts were taken from particular lands. This income assessment method was known as Zabt. The milkiyat, is the land that belonged to the rural elites known as the zamindars. The state employs zamindars to collect taxes on behalf of the state, while they enjoy the produces that are grown on their respective lands.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the batai system?
Ans: The batai system was a different method of collecting money. It was the earliest method of getting money from the peasants. In batai, the peasants were required to contribute the kingdom a specific portion of their harvest. The Zabti and batai systems were up for selection by the peasantry.

2. Explain the Dahsala system for tax collection.
Ans: Dahsala was a development of Zabt policy. Todar Mal, Akbar’s minister of revenue, came up with it. This strategy determined the total yield of any land over a period of ten years and then applied the average as a tax.

3. What distinguishes Zabt and Batai from one another?
Ans: Zabt, or land revenue, was paid in cash, but Batai, or revenue, was paid in agricultural output.

Introduction

The Mansabdari and Jagirdari systems did not start off suddenly. It is a practice that developed from the bureaucracy in medieval India. Emperors of the Delhi sultanate had captured the vast regions, and to govern those territories, they established a bureaucracy. In the past, emperors appointed their military leaders as governors, and occasionally they selected their well-trained slaves to lead those regions. High-ranking court officials were assigned designated areas to administer and were permitted to receive tax revenue as compensation. Akbar proposed the concept of Mansab and Jagir. The Mughal empire’s growth and fall were both significantly influenced by the mansabdari system. In the Mughal era, the bureaucracy systems mansabdari and jagirdari both existed.

The Mansabdars

• Mansab in the Mughal court denoted a position or rank. The Mansabdari system was developed under the Mughal court.
• People with a rank in the Mughal emperor’s service are known as mansabdars.
• In this system, the top officials were assigned specific grades and positions in the Mughal court.
• The Mughal court made nobles into mansabdars which included Muslims from India, Rajputs, Afghans, etc. also the Military and civilian authorities equally served as mansabdars.
• To determine a fixed position, military responsibilities, and salary, mansab ranks were assigned.
• The mansabdars were symbolized by a number called Zat, which set their wages and rank in the emperor’s court. The higher the Zat, the higher the mansabdar’s standing in the court.
• 29 mansabdars with a rank of 5000 or higher existed during the reign of Akbar.
• The number of soldiers, cavalrymen, and horses that a mansabdar was required to present to the king were also based on the numerical value of zat.
• Zat and Sawars demoted the Mansabdars. The Sawars represent the required number of cavalrymen and horses.
• The Mansabdars were required to register their cavalrymen and brand their horses.
• The position of mansabdar was transferred; and not hereditary.
• Both money and land were given to mansabdars as payment.
• They were regarded as elites.

Check out more videos in Social Science Class 7 , Lesson No. 4 to learn about the Mughal Empire. Study its history, Akbar’s progressive policies, and the factors leading to the dynasty’s decline. This lesson offers valuable insights into the fascinating history of the Mughals.

The Jagirdars

• Jagirdars were mansabdars who received payment in the form of a plot of land or Jagir.
• The iqtadari system of the former Delhi Sultanate inspired this custom of compensating the nobility with the land.
• It must be kept in mind that Jagirdars were distinct from Iqtadars in that they were only given the power to collect taxes from that jagir as their compensation rather than being given control of that territory.
• Jagirdar had a responsibility to pay his troops, and cavalrymen, and maintain the standard of the horses.
• Following a thorough evaluation, the king granted them a jagir so that the revenue received would equal their salary.
• The Jagirdars used to live opulent lives.
• The position of a Jagirdar was not hereditary and could be transferred.
• Jairdars and mansabdars didn’t live in the jagirs that were given.
• They had servants who were in charge of collecting money for the jagirdars.
• The imperial authorities monitored jagirdars to prevent them from using the peasants as a means of generating extra revenue and force on them to extra taxes.

Drawbacks of Jagirdars and Mansabdars system

There were some drawbacks in these systems such as-

• The mansabdari and jagirdari institutions functioned effectively under Akbar’s rule, and he appointed officials to maintain their control.
• Although there were more mansabdaars later in Aurangzeb’s reign, there were fewer jagirs available, therefore mansabdars had to wait a long time to obtain one.
• After receiving the jagir, they sought to maximise their income by taking advantage of the peasants and occasionally used Faujdar, a military commander, to collect taxes.
• The mansabdars, or nobles, amassed immense wealth in the seventeenth century, which expanded their influence.
• As the Mughal dynasty began to fall apart, they gradually established their own monarchy, claimed the land as their inherited jagir, and began to rule over those places. This was seen in the Awadh and Hyderabad provinces.
• They continued to regard the Mughal emperor as their superior but maintained their autonomy.

Summary

The Mughal government was highly developed and sophisticated. With several innovations, it had adapted the administrative procedures and framework of the preceding dynasties and developed its own king of bureaucracy. Akbar was the innovator of the Mughal administration. The bureaucracy ran smoothly and effectively during his reign. In order to create Mansabdars and Jagirdars, Akbar modified the earlier system of iqtadars. The Mansab was based on the rank and position a manasabdari held in the mughal court and the Jagirdars were mansabdars who received their daily wages in the form of jagir. Both of them received taxes from the allotted province but they never ruled them. These positions were transferable and not inherited, it contributed to both the growth and fall of the Mughal empire.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Who were the Zamindars?

Ans: In the Mughal era there was a Zamidari system, and they were governed by the Zamindars.

• Zamindars were members of the rural elite who exercised administrative control over a region, whilst Jagirdars had no such authority.
• The Rajputs or another reigning family were the ancestors of the zamindars.
• The Jairdars were not always members of the previous aristocracy.
• Rural zamindars were small-scale landowners.
• Additionally, zamindars had forts and an army.
• Zamindars, as opposed to Jagirdars, had inherited control over tax collection.\
• While Jagirdars were stationed in the Mughal court, Zamindars often lived in their region.

2. What does Tajwiz mean?

Ans: Tajwiz was a formal request made by a Noble to the emperor for the names of candidates to be recommended for the position of mansabdar.

3. How many classes existed within the Mansabdars?

Ans: The three classes of masabdars were as follows:

• The first class was required to keep an equal number of sawars and jat.
• The second class was required to keep jat and a half or more than half of its sawars.
• The third class kept jat and  just over half or less of its sawars.