Category: Social Studies

Introduction

A remarkable Mughal empress who showed considerable interest in the political matters of the kingdom was Nur Jahan. She was the 20th wife of Emperor Jahangir. She was a confident and powerful lady who actively took part in Jahangir’s court’s different decision-making processes. The Mughal emperor’s reign was maintained thanks to her bravery and strength. In exchange, she received some honours and benefits that no Mughal empress before or after her ever received.

Early life

Mehr-un-Nissa was the actual name of Nur Jahan. She was born in Afghanistan’s present capital city of Kandahar. Mirza Ghiyas Beg and his wife Asmat Begum welcomed their fourth child, Nur Jahan, into the world in 1577. They belonged to an Iranian noble household. Mirza Ghiyas Beg travelled to India in quest of work after experiencing some financial difficulties. Nur Jahan was able to resume her education due to his efforts to make sure of it. In addition to studying the arts, ballet, music, and writing, she was a prodigy in languages like Arabic and Persian.

Mughal Empress Nur Jahan

First Marriage of Nur Jahan

In 1594, at the age of 17, Mehr-un-Nissa wed Sher Afgan Khan. Under the rule of kings Akbar and Jahangir, Sher Afgan Khan led the Mughal military. Mehr-un-Nissa and Sher Afgan Khan were graced with a daughter in 1605, whom they called Ladli Begum. Sher Afgan was assassinated in 1607, two years after Jahangir had succeeded to the Mughal empire, amid numerous rumours. One of these rumours suggested that Jahangir may have personally planned the murder of Sher Afgan. 

After he passed away, Ruqaiya Sultan Begum, the widow of the late Emperor Akbar, hired Nur Jahan and her daughter to serve as “ladies-in-waiting” at the court of Jahangir for security.

Marriage of Nur Jahan to Jahangir

Jahangir and Nur Jahan were wed in 1611 at the spring celebration of Nowroz, where Jahangir first met Nur Jahan in the Meena bazaar. As soon as he saw her, he proposed, and they were wedded the following year, to Nur Jahan. Jahangir, who was enamoured with her attractiveness, gave her the names “Nur Mahal” and “Nur Jahan,” respectively, which mean “light of the palace” and “light of the globe,” to describe her.

Jahangir valued her view on the state’s political matters because he respected her so much. The Mughal empire’s most powerful and prestigious emblem of resolve was even given to her—his royal insignia. With the support of this seal, she was able to look over and authorize any request before it gained legality. Her name was inscribed on coins for the first time; no other Mughal queen had ever experienced this.

Jahangir and Prince Khurram with Nur Jahan 

Mughal Empress

She was also a great defender of the Mughal kingdom, securing the borders, settling family conflicts, and quelling uprisings. She even came up with an answer when a conflict arose over the name of the empire’s next ruler when Jahangir was not present. She used her cunning and strength to free Jahangir in 1626 after Mahabat Khan, the rebel leader, had kidnapped him.

According to historians, Nur Jahan once served as a representative of Jharokhas, where she welcomed crowds, at the palace of Jahangir. Nur Jahan used to issue orders and take the risk of using her power when Jahangir was ill and addicted. Nur Jahan’s use of governmental authority established a precedent.  She was an excellent hunter who treasured going hunting with Jahangir.

Life of Nur Jahan after Jahangir’s death

Nur Jahan and her daughter were placed under house arrest in Lahore after Jahangir died as a result of a plot by her brother, the subsequent successor, Shah Jahan. She was in charge of overseeing construction of Itmad-ud-mausoleum Daula’s in Agra at this period. According to historians, the Taj Mahal was modelled after this mausoleum.

Summary

Nur Jahan was an extraordinary Mughal empress who left an imprint on Mughal history. She played a pivotal role when Jahangir was present and took policy decisions when he was ill. Not only was she beautiful, but she also had a keen interest in the state affairs of the Mughal empire. She participated actively in the court proceedings when the emperor Jahangir was present. When Jahangir used to be ill and died, Nur Jahan took over the court affairs. As Jahangir trusted her immensely, he made it necessary to take the consent of Nur Jahan while approving any order. He even minted a coin imprinting her name on it and gave her the prestigious imperial seal. 

Frequently asked question

1. Describe in brief about Nur Jahan’s personality.

Nur Jahan was a smart and beautiful lady. She was a lady of culture, intelligence, and education. In addition to her intense interest in state politics, she also had a keen interest in fashion. She was able to take on state matters and stood strongly by the oppressed and underprivileged people thanks to her problem-solving skills, bravery, resilience, generosity, and kind spirit.

2. What was the Nur Jahan Junta?

Following her marriage, Nur Jahan established a tight circle of friends, including herself, her father Itimad-ud-Daula, mother Asmat Begum, and prince Khurram. The Nur Jahan Group was the name of this organisation. Each member had better positions within the Mughal kingdom and was competent.

3. Why did Nur Jahan have such control in Jahangir’s court?

Nur Jahan was unquestionably extremely talented and charismatic, which is likely why she was capable of holding as much control as she did.

 

Introduction

Ain-i-Akbari, the third volume of the Akbar Nama, includes details about the Akbari administration, including its different agencies, ranks, etc. All of the histories that were written in India during the Muslim period were mainly chronologies of the events they detailed. The common people are rarely addressed unless there are famines or other natural catastrophes with high mortality details.   The Ain-i-Akbari, however, is a work with a special identity. Along with imperial institutions, nobles, and establishment figures of the empire, this book describes people working in a variety of sectors and occupations.

Meaning of Ain-i-Akbari

The Mughal Empire’s great ruler Akbar’s constitution or government is known by the term “Ain-i-Akbari.” Written in Farsi in the sixteenth century, this work. According to the author, Abu’l-Fuzzle was one of Akbar’s royal palace’s nine jewels (also known as Navaratnas in Hindi). According to reports, he took seven years to finish the work. Numerous miniature paintings of the original text were donated by the top artists of the Mughal school of painting and masters of the royal workshops, including Basawan, whose use of portraiture in images marked a milestone in Indian art. It is assumed that the writing dates from between 1592 and 1594.

Akbar Nama and Ain-i-Akbari

Abu’l-Fuzle Three volumes of the chronicle of Akbar’s reign were written by Ibn Mubarak, one of Akbar’s best friends and a court administrator. This book’s name was Akbar Nama. Akbar’s ancestors are covered in the first book, and the events of his rule are covered in the second volume’s chronology. Volume 3 was titled Ain-i Akbari and covered the governance, domestic life, armed forces, finances, and regional distribution of Akbar’s dominion. Information about Indian traditions and society is also included in the text. The most effective aspects of Ain-i Akbari are its detailed data on a range of topics, including commodities, outputs, prices, salaries, and revenue.

Many modern historians have long thought about the significant systemic changes in Mughal rule and the changes in Akbar’s managerial and religious policies in the years leading up to his death.

Significance of Akbar Nama & Ain-i-Akbari

Ain-i-Akbari, the third book of the Akbar Nama (1556-1605 CE), was authored by Abu-l-Fazl, the royal historian of Emperor Akbar. While Akbar  Nama is a historical work, Ain-i-Akbari is a collection of rules and laws that Akbar drafted and put into effect to promote good government.  The Ain-i-Akbari law describes Akbar’s reign in depth, including the numerous divisions, their different classes, and more. All history that has been written about India during the Islamic period is mainly documented chronologically, with battles, conquests, and dynasty changes.

with the exception of famine and other severe natural disasters, the general population is rarely discussed. Ain-i-Akbari, however, is a work with a distinct spirit. Along with imperial organizations, aristocrats, and empire ancestors, this book also profiles individuals employed in a variety of sectors and occupations. Imperial Harlem, culinary and serving utensils, fragrances, creatures like horses and elephants, and the spring and autumn vegetable crops are among the subjects covered. The Muslim population as well as the local Hindu, Jain, and other groups are discussed in this work along with their social background, writing aspirations, and pursuits in law and philosophy. Chapters on famous tourists, Muslim saints, and Sufis are also included.

Another issue Abu’l-Fuzzle talks about with the throng of people is the caste system. It lists each caste’s name, title, and responsibilities. The combination of four fundamental classes yields 16 subcategories, which are discussed in the resultant text. Following that, he spoke about karma, calling it “a truly remarkable kind of knowledge system on which Hindustani academics concur without distinction.” Based on what happens in the next world, he categorises human behaviour into four groups.

Summary

Abul Fazal was one of Akbar’s court’s most successful historians, and his books “AkbarNama” and “Ain-e-Akbari” are scriptures to his comprehensive understanding and knowledge of Persian writing. The Ain-i-Akbari, also known as the “Constitution of Akbar,” is a comprehensive work that chronicles the governance of the kingdom of Akbar’s vizier Abu’l-Fazl ibn Mubarak and was composed in the 16th century. It is the third and final book of the three-volume Akbarnama, also known as the Book of Akbar, which Abul Fazl also published.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Which volume of Akbar Nama book is known as Ain-i-Akbari?

Information about Akbar’s rule can be found in Akbar Nama, volume 3. Because it correctly captures the time of Akbar’s rule, The AkbarNama is an especially valuable literary work for historians. It offered a thorough evaluation of the Mughal Kingdom in all its facets. Ain-e Akbar is basically a unique work because it departs from the previous works’ formulaic storytelling and provides an exhaustive account of Akbar’s India. The self-assured, endearing, and frequently exaggerated writing style of Akbarnama was regarded as the apex of historical literature and was copied in later years.

2. Who gained authority after Akbar’s death?

The Mughal dynasty’s most illustrious monarch, Akbar, passed away on October 29, 1605. After his demise, Nur-ud-din Salim Jahangir became the next ruler of India.

3. Who was the final ruler of the Mughals?

The last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah II, also known as Zafar, died in British imprisonment in Burma in 1862. As the last of a dynasty line that dated back to the fifteenth century, he had headed a court that was well-educated in culture in his earlier years. However, as the British East India Company expanded.

Introduction

Indian history alluded to the time span between both the Stone Age to the back In the ancient era as the “Dark Age.” But the unearthing of the Harappan Civilization, the earliest Bronze Age settlement of Southern Asia, in the early 20th century catapulted the chronology of civilised Indian life backward by 2,000 years all at once. The finding of the world-famous “Harappan Civilization” was presumably initially described as the first illumination on a bygone Civilization.

The first agrarian settlements in this area built a perfect socioeconomic system that was centred on agricultural methods, cutting-edge technology, flows of capital, artisan pursuits, and ceremonial rites.The area includes a wealth of artefacts that shed information on the development and evolution of early shepherd and village settlements into the historical buildings of the earliest urbanised civilization across age.

Urbanisation in india

The mechanism through which rural villages develop into metropolis, or urban centres, and, therefore, the emergence and spread of such cities, is known as urbanisation. The first recorded settlement in the upstream of Saraswati valley dates to just before the Holocene epoch. Early agricultural groups developed sedentary lifestyles thanks in large part to the natural circumstances of the upper Saraswati region, which eventually resulted in the establishment of the first urbanised civilisation called the Harappan Civilization.

The Harappans are widely thought to be a mosaic of several ethnic groupings.Numerous craft hubs and minor village communities that practised agribusiness sustained this civilization’s urban and intercontinental commercial economies.The territory was a key source of many different categories of minerals, metals, and stones (obtained from the Siwalik and Aravalli hills), and it would have offered crucially critical functional supply lines, permitting the easy movement of goods from one point towards another.

Harappan culture’s History and Development

It is no longer true to say that the Mesopotamian culture, which blossomed at the meeting point of the Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq, was substantially accountable for the development of the Harappan Civilization. The explorations at the Mehrgarh location near the Bolan Pass in Balochistan province in the 1970s and 1980s yielded enough evidence to show that the provenance is native to the Indian subcontinent. Since the commencement of established life at Mehrgarh in 7000 BC, there has been a progressive expansion, which inevitably resulted in the creation of the Harappan. There are seven evolutionary stages at Mehrgarh, and it is clear that certain Harappan components were introduced on every level.

The emergence of the Harappan civilisation was facilitated by advantageous climatic circumstances, a robust agricultural foundation in  the Indus, Ghaggar,  Saurashtra,and Hakra basins, as well as a wealth of mineral wealth along the seashore and in the arid. Additionally, society was preparing for such an upheaval. There is no wonder that people arrived in quest of both rich mineral deposits and agriculturally productive land. Since they needed rich alluvial plains deposition and waters for irrigation systems, the majority of these communities are situated close to lakes and rivers. It is important to remember that all of the original farming villages in the upper Saraswati valley are long-term habitations since this area has given them everything they need.

As a result, the inhabitants of these early farming settlements successfully established themselves here for good and over time developed into sophisticated village civilizations.

Harappan Civilization’s Decline

Commencing in the second millennium BC, there was a breach in the coherence, unification, and growth of urban civilization. The rich urbanized era (the mature Harappan period) was characterized by a number of subsystems, all of which appear to have deteriorated.

About 2000 BC, the Harappan civilization started to fall. Based on human skeleton remains found in Mohenjodaro’s upper tiers, Wheeler had proposed in the 1960s that the Aryan deity Indra had exterminated the Harappans. Recent studies on this topic showed that the most crucial cause in the downfall of the Harappan Civilization was the climate. Data on rainfall patterns collected from all across the world made it abundantly evident that the weather had changed significantly, which had an impact on their agribusiness. The Harappan civilization collapsed after its decline and split into several minor regional cultures. Up to 1500 BC, they carried on the Harappan heritage. The Harappans were on the verge of moving out from the main area and toward the outskirts. The Harappan artifacts serve as the foundation for modern farm machinery. This demonstrates that even though the Harappan civilization has vanished, its heritage has persisted.

Summary

The upper Saraswati valley region contributed significantly to the creation and growth of the ancient farming households by offering a suitable area for faster economic growth in agricultural output and the necessary utilities for irrigation. The early agricultural community laid the groundwork for several novel concepts and contributed to the development of the ideal political and economic system. A change and the growth of complexity in sophisticated village civilization became apparent throughout time. The sophistication developed as a result of cross country connections and trades, labour division within the community, the complication of the subsistence economy, the growth of religious practises and traditions, as well as the emergence of craft specialiaztion. Notwithstanding of how modern historians interpret these texts or symbols, they clearly indicate a common philosophy and worldview that was diffused across a very wide region and was unquestionably a major contributor to the melding of urban and rural people dispersed across many geographical contexts.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. In which age urbanization commenced and what disadvantages, characteristics, positive impacts of urbanization?

Ans. In the Uruk Period, ancient Mesopotamia saw the birth of urbanization 4300-3200 BCE.

• Disadvantages of urbanization-The increased population densities and expectations of urban areas worsen quality of the air, a lack of water supply, waste-disposal issues, and excessive energy use.
• Characteristics of urbanization-The features of urbanisation include class contrasts, socioeconomic complexity, separateness, systems of contact, and mobility. They also include planned amenities, residential neighborhoods, job centres, communications infrastructure, and civic amenities.
• Positive impacts of urbanization-The turnaround of land, establishment of employment hubs, treatment centers, etc. results from this urbanization.

2. How did India’s first urbanization decline? 

Ans. The most significant river for the Harappans, the Ghaggar/Hakra, dried up, forcing the people of Harapp to leave the riverbanks and settle inland. The ocean level dropped significantly, rendering the majority of the Harappan harbors worthless and drastically harming its commerce with the Persian Gulf and  Mesopotamia. Together, these elements caused the collapse of the Harappan Civilization.

3. What are the problems of urbanization in India?

Ans. Increasing population density, poor infrastructure, a lack of cheap housing, floods, contamination, the development of slums, crime, traffic congestion, and impoverishment are the issues connected to urbaniaztion. The issue of high density of populations is brought on by the rapid rural to urban migration.

Introduction

The Magadha Empire was ruled by the Haryanka, Shishunaga, and Nanda dynasties during antiquity. According to estimates, the Magadha Empire existed between 684 and 320 BCE. The four Mahajanapadas—Magadha, Kosala, Avanti, and Vatsa—fought for power from the sixth to the fourth centuries BCE. Finally, Magadha triumphed and was able to seize control. In ancient India, it rose to become the most powerful state. Location of Magadha in contemporary Bihar.

For the past 200 years, historians have been interested in Magadha.This has been the case since it developed into the centre of the Mauryan dynasty’s political authority. The Magadhan empire expanded in its lifetime, around the sixth century BCE. However, the Nandas and the Mauryas further expedited this process. The position of Ashokan inscriptions suggests that, except for the eastern and southern extremes, the majority of the Indian subcontinent had fallen under Magadhan suzerainty.

Magadha and Mauryan King

The most significant and unanticipated consequence of Alexander’s invasion of the northwest, according to D.D. Kosambi was that it accelerated the Mauryan subjugation of the entire nation. The success of Chandragupta’s overthrow of the final Nanda ruler and occupation of his city Pataliputra is correlated with his ascension to the throne in or about 321 BCE. Alexander is said to have even visited Chandragupta, who persuaded him to invade Magadha while the unpopular Nandas ruled it.

The Arthashastra is credited to Chanakya, who is supposed to have been highly aware of the formation of the state and civilization to guarantee that the dominion did not fall. Chanakya is also said to have been well-versed in the political concepts of battle and aggrandisement.

Maurya Ashoka

Ashoka Maurya wasn’t a particularly well-known ruler up until around 1837. James Prinsep translated a Brahmi inscription mentioning a ruler named Devanampiya Piyadassi in that year (Beloved of the Gods). It was, therefore, possible to confirm that the ruler depicted in the inscription was Ashoka Maurya by comparing this information to what was recorded from the Sri Lankan chronicle Mahavamsa. Ashoka gained notoriety for forgoing war in favor of attempting to construct a political order based on the Dhamma philosophy.

Mauryan Empire

Many historians, who view the Mauryan Empire as an empire mainly in terms of its geographic scope, place a high value on the part Chandragupta Maurya played in mercilessly halting the flow of outside involvement in the Mauryan State.

The north-west is repressing Indigenous kings in the west and south of India. Source information on the nature and extent of these military accomplishments is lacking. Thus one must recreate these facts using reports accessible to his successors who succeeded him and took over this empire.

Contact with Seleucus Nikator, who reigned over the region west of the Indus circa 305 BCE, was one of Chandragupta Maurya’s earliest significant military accomplishments. With the Indus and Gangetic plains firmly under Chandragupta’s authority, this accomplishment meant that the territorial basis of the Mauryans had been constructed. According to legend, Bindusara, Chandragupta’s son, rose to the throne in 297 BCE. According to Buddhist scriptures, Bindusara passed somewhere between 273-272 BCE. For almost four years following his passing, his sons fought among themselves for the right to succeed him. In the end, Ashoka, who lived between 269 and 268 BCE, was named Bindusara’s successor.

War in Kalinga

Ashoka ruled as a proconsul at Taxila and Ujjain during his father’s rule. It is believed that he was dispatched to Taxila to put down a rebellion. The Buddhist texts inform us that following his triumph at Taxila, he was appointed viceroy of Ujjain. It is believed that Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism was greatly influenced by the events in his personal life, such as his marriage to a Vidisha merchant’s daughter and the birth of their two daughters, Mahinda and Sanghamita. Certain discrepancies in the Buddhist chronicles cannot be ignored because they provide much information about his early life.

Magadha at Ashoka’s Death

We have an excellent notion of the size of the Magadha kingdom during Ashoka’s rule based on the locations of the many Rock Edicts and Pillar Edicts through which he propagated his Dhamma philosophy. This information is provided by 14 Major Rock Edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts, and a few Minor Rock Inscriptions.

Shahbazgarhi and Maneshra in Peshawar, Kalsi near Dehra Dun,Girnar near Junagarh in Kathiawar,Sopara in Thane district,  Dhauli in Bhubaneswar, and Jaugada in Gangam district of Odisha are the locations of the Major Rock Edicts. The Minor Rock Edicts may be found in Karnataka, among other places,  Jatinga-Rameshwar, Siddapura, and Brahmagiri. Other Minor Rock Edicts may be found in the Indian states of Madhya Pradesh’s Rupnath near Jabalpur, Rajasthan’s Bairat near Jaipur, Bihar’s Sahasram,  and Karnataka’s Maski.

Thus, under Ashoka, the Magadha empire saw its most extraordinary geographical growth. However, there was also a deliberate effort underway at the same time to put a stop to all battles throughout his realm. Finally, even though the locations of the Mauryan inscriptions are on well-travelled trade routes, some of which border the empire’s periphery, it has not yet been determined with certainty whether the areas where there is no evidence of inscriptions were governed in the same manner as those where they were discovered.

Summary

The existence of the ancient Magadh empire was found from about 684 to 320 BCE. The great monarchs made significant contributions to the growth and empowerment of the Magadh kingdom. The rise of the complete kingdom was influenced by a number of additional factors, including beneficial geographic location, social, economic, and cultural variables. In this article we learned about the significance of Magadha’s strategic location and the causes of its rise and the significant events in Magadha’s early history before the rise of Mauryan law and information concerning the beginning of the Mauryan plan and the expansionist policies of the Mauryans.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What factors led to the growth of the Magadha PDF?

Ans. The strategic positions of its two capitals, Rajagriha and Pataliputra, and the abundance of minerals led to the introduction of iron implements specifically for combat, and vibrant alluvial soil that contributed to agricultural surplus output were all factors in the emergence of Magadha.

2. What factors led to Magadha’s ascension to imperial status?

Ans. Under the administration of Bimbisara, a member of the Haryanka dynasty, Magadha attained prominence. He most likely toppled the Brihadrathas of Magadha and, upon ascending, adopted the title “Srinika.” From 544 until 493 B.C., he was the king of Magadha. His foundation of the Magadhan kingdom was his greatest accomplishment.

3. What advantages played a major role in Magadha becoming the most dominant power and Explain the rise of magadha upto Nnda dynasty?

Ans. The armies of the Magadha emperors were composed of elephants, horses, and chariots and were well organized, effective, and formidable. The Magadhan region produced an abundance of food due to its fertile land. The Magadhan kings benefited greatly from trade and business.

Introduction

Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, the Mughal emperor who reigned from 1556 to 1605 CE, is regarded as one of the greatest emperors in Indian history. When he was crowned emperor, he was just 13 years old.  His representative was Bairam Khan.  By establishing a secular state based on the values of religious tolerance, liberalism, and political unanimity, he not only increased the size of the empire but also helped to strengthen it. The Mughal Empire achieved its height of pride and greatness during his rule.  Everything for Akbar first appeared dire and hopeless. He overcame difficulties, nevertheless, and guided the Mughal Empire to greatness and strength.

Akbar has a long-term outlook for his empire. He understood that maintaining the empire’s power structure was more crucial than expanding it. Also, he implemented policies that emphasized interdenominational ideas in order to gain the respect and allegiance of the empire’s enemies. 

Religious principle of Akbar

He had a liberal approach to religion.. Akbar created a strategy known as sulh-i-kul. He paid the pilgrimage tax and jizyah. Hindus have complete freedom to follow their faith and participate in festivities. He established friendly connections among all communities as a result.

Akbar attempted to meld the teachings of many religions into a new religious order known as Din-i-Ilahi, or divine faith, in an effort to resolve the conflicts between them. His goal was to establish a religious organization that would be welcomed by all groups. Moreover, He constructed a structure called the “Ibadat Khana” where he had conversations with the religious experts. He enacted a number of changes, including the abolition of several customs and traditions that were exploitative to other groups, and he created policies to advance intergroup harmony. 

Rajput policy

The Rajputs were the Mugal Empire’s main opponents. In order to peacefully expand his dominion, Akbar therefore gave a helping hand to the Rajputs through marriage alliances. Rajputs received treatment comparable to that of Mughal nobles. As part of his efforts to enlarge the Mughal Empire, Akbar also gave the Rajput rulers’ conquered territories back as assignments or watan jagir. Instead of forcefully occupying their regions, he grew closer to them.

In this video, we dive into the fascinating world of Mughal Emperor Akbar and his policies. Learn about his administration, and political strategies as we examine his reign and its influence on India. Discover how Akbar’s policies nurtured unity and harmony in a diverse society.

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Akbar’s administrative policies

Abul Fazl’s book ‘The Akbar Nama’, specifically its third and final volume, The Ain-i Akbari, specifically referred to Akbar’s administrative policies. The emperor was in charge of the government, as per Abul Fazl’s description. Abul Fazl described how the empire was split into Subas, which both were headed by a Subadar. The Subadar performed both military and political duties. These subedars benefited significantly from a number of authorities, including Mir Bakshi, Sadr, the head of the military, Kotwal, the top advisor for Islamic issues, and the police commander, among many others.

The Mughal Empire in the 17th Century and After

The Mughal Empire’s military and administrative ability prepared the path for enormous economic and commercial prosperity in the 17th century. Yet there were also significant disparities present.

The salaries and products of other individuals were subsidised by the Mughal emperors and their mansabdars. These expenditures benefited the craftspeople and peasants who provided the emperors with their commodities and agricultural output. On the other side, there wasn’t much left for these farmers and artists.

When the Mughal emperor’s influence gradually declined, Akbar’s subordinates emerged as powerful political forces in those areas. They succeeded in establishing new dynasties while maintaining control over states like Hyderabad and Awadh. During the 18th century, the empire’s provinces had united to become their own separate political entities, and the Mughal dynasty fell down.

Summary

The Mughal Empire saw unprecedented glory under his reign due to Akbar’s reforms in virtually every aspect of his leadership. To strengthen his empire, he bases his policies on the ideals of brotherhood and world peace. In addition, he developed a number of initiatives where he advocated for a coordinated strategy. His history, “Akbarnama,” authored by one of his courtiers Abul Fazl, gives detailed details about his reign. Nevertheless, his successors did not entirely uphold his principles, which led to a shift in the perception of the Mughal Empire by the seventeenth century.

Frequently Asked question

1. How did Akbar became emperor?

Akbar was born to Hamida Banu in 1542 CE. When his father Humayun passed away, he was only 13 years old. This unexpected turn of events once again put the recently restored Mughal Empire in danger. As there was no other nominee for the throne, Bairam Khan was named as Akbar’s regent.

2. What important aspects of din-i-ilahi did Akbar introduce?

Akbar recommended the religious path known as din-i-ilahi. It was a set of moral principles that expressed Akbar’s secular beliefs and his desire to bring harmony, tolerance, and peace to his kingdom. Other characteristics of Din-i-ilahi were worshipping the source of light,emphasised piety, benevolence, and the restoration of the soul.

3. What distinguishes the religious policy of Akbar from Aurangzeb?

Akbar’s approach to religion was quite tolerant. He held all religious systems in the same esteem and believed that all faiths are substantially one. Yet, Aurangzeb frequently went to extremes with his sectarian beliefs. The majority of the populace, who were non-Muslims, completely lost respect for him.

Introduction

A fundamental shift in the established social and political system brought about by the actions of a group of disaffected members of society is referred to as a revolution.  The sociopolitical system in France was thought to be the root of the problems. This framework was unbalanced, in favour of the upper two estates of society and gave the king absolute power, but denied the common people any basic rights. In the end, the dissatisfied segment of society (third estate) began retaliating against the ruling class, which sparked the French Revolution in 1789.

Reasons for French Revolution

There were many reasons for the French Revolution to take place, some of which are mentioned below-

• Unequal Social Order

French civilization was feudal and had three “Estates”. The first and second estates in France were privileged elites and landowners, but they did not pay any taxes,  instead lived at the cost of the third estate. The third estate was the largest community in French society, still they were denied the right to political representation, even though they were subjected to the full weight of taxation. The vast majority of people hence became unhappy and, as a result, caused the French Revolution.

• Rise to Middle Class

Some members of the Third Estate became wealthy as a result of the growth of international trade and business and were referred to as the Middle Class. In addition to professionals and intellectuals, this class also comprised businessmen and industrialists. Although this middle class was influential economically, they were excluded from political representation since they belonged to the third estate. This infuriated them because they believed that a person’s place in society should be determined by his merits rather than any privileges.

• Philosophers and Revolutionary ideas

The writings of eighteenth-century philosophers like Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau sparked a revolutionary spirit among the French people, especially the educated middle class. They challenged the clergy and members of the church for having excessive power and influence. Philosophers published their thoughts in books and newspapers, which spread the options of liberty and equality among the middle class and led to the French Revolution.

• Economic Crisis 

By the second part of the eighteenth century, the French economy was in trouble. The demand for food grains increased as a result of France’s growing population. On the other side, the inability to produce enough food due to famines and droughts increased the cost of goods.

The French exchequer was also already worn down by supporting the opulent lifestyles of King Louis XVI and his wife, as well as the corrupt government officials. Loan providers began requesting payment of funds with a 10% interest rate. The only way to pay off this debt was to raise taxes on the third estate, which brought anger to that estate and propelled the thought of revolution.

• Autocratic Monarchy and corrupt Administration

People were obliged to start the revolution in France as a result of the monarchy and the government’s combined failure. The monarch insisted that he had the power to rule by divine right and that ordinary people had no place in the decision-making process. And the king gave little thought to the well-being of his subjects, and the corrupt and self-centred royal administrators were more focused on lining their wallets rather than thinking of the benefit of the commoners. People did not trust the governing system and hence led to the revolution.

• Influence of the American Revolution

The French people were motivated to rebel against the unfair control of their nation’s absolute monarchy by the achievement of the Americans in freeing themselves from British domination. Even a few military generals from France took part in the American War of Independence. They brought revolutionary ideas with them when they returned to France, urging people to fight for their rights. This led to the French Revolution.

Summary

The word ‘revolution’ refers to a change in the established social and political structure due to the efforts of the neglected section of society. France’s sociopolitical landscape during the French Revolution of 1789 was completely disrupted by the members of the Third Estate. The existing population was unhappy for a variety of reasons such as inequality, economic crisis, autocratic monarchy etc. which led to the start of the revolution in 1789. This revolution not only affected French society and politics but also impacted the trajectory of human history.

Frequently Asked Questions 

Q1. How did the Third Estate respond to the circumstances in France at the time?
Ans: The third estate rejected the voting system that gave each state one vote, during May 1789’s Estate General’s meeting regarding France’s financial issues. They wanted the voting based on the number of members. Hence, they took revolutionary action by declaring themselves a National Assembly to ensure their representation, which launched the Revolution in June 1789.

Q2. What do you mean when you say that kingship has a divine right?
Ans: The idea that the monarch’s authority to reign comes directly from God’s will, not through the approval of the population, is known as the “divine right of kingship.”

Q3. What historical changes resulted from the French Revolution?
Ans: The French Revolution not only changed the sociopolitical landscape of France, but it also served as an inspiration for many other nations to defend their national interests. In the end, it helped to foster a sense of national awareness that opened the way for national movements around the world.

Introduction

The French Revolution, which took place in Europe between 1789 and 1799, was a great milestone in European history. The long-term political instability, the dictatorial king, and incompetent bureaucrats who were driven by personal interests rather than the benefit of the common people were the main catalyst for the revolution. In addition, the Third Estate’s enormous tax load and lack of political representation contributed to their which paved the way to a revolution. The revolution started in June 1789 when the Third Estate members declared themselves to be a National Assembly.

Society Structure

France’s socioeconomic structure was based on a feudal system. French society was divided into 3 estates:- the first estate, the second estate, and the third estate.

1. First estate- This included the clergy, church priests, etc, as they were involved in religious activities and obligations.
2. Second estate- The nobility and aristocracy made up most of the second estate. Most often, this nobility was inherited, although there were times when it could be purchased by paying high taxes and rendering excellent services to the royal class.
3. Third estate- Nearly 96 percent of people were members of the Third Estate. There were two groups within the third estate: the first group was made up of businesspeople like big capitalists and advocates. Peasants, labourers, and servants made up the second tier; they were accorded the lowest status in society.

The aristocratic classes of society known as the First and Second Estate owned vast plots of property and were excused from paying taxes. They were supported by the Third Estate, who was entirely taxed to live. The Third Estate members were required to pay tithe and taille. They were also denied representation in the political and social structures despite paying all taxes. Most of the populace in the third estate became unhappy as a result.

A new middle class, which made up the top tier of the third estate, appeared together with the expansion of trade and commerce in Europe. This middle class had grown financially powerful, they were well-educated and wealthy. They began promoting concepts of equality and freedom and rejected the idea of the “Divine right theory of kingship.” They also opposed the church and aristocracy’s abuse of their exceptional privileges, this class demanded political representation that would provide equal chances for all based on an individual’s merits. By the end of the revolution, due to their persistent efforts, a democratic republic was established in France.

Politics

France in the seventeenth century was dominated by a monarchy, the king took all the power into his hands and eliminated public participation in politics.

When King Louis XVI took power in 1774, most of the populace had already grown weary of France’s political unpredictability. Additionally, the royal treasury began to run out due to the monarch’s expensive lifestyle. As a result, the third estate was subject to higher taxes, which infuriated this sector even more. In addition, the French monarchy had zero regard for the well-being of the population. Similarly, unscrupulous, and self-centered administrative officials were ineffective and showed little concern for the welfare of the people.

In the American War of Independence, King Louis XVI dispatched French forces to oppose Britain; this cost many soldiers their lives and increased strain on the treasury.

This made the situation worse and prompted the common people to speak out against the current ruling class and call for a change in the socio-political system in eighteenth-century France.

Summary

The French Revolution of 1789 was a pivotal moment in the history of modern-day West Europe. The social and political structure of France throughout the eighteenth century underwent a significant transformation because of this revolution, which lasted for approximately ten years. Changes were brought about by this revolution not only in France but also in other regions of the world. Other European nations began to overhaul their socio-political institutions following the French Revolution. With the abolition of feudalism in most European nations, the French Revolution had global significance. Although there were many factors contributing to the revolution’s start, social inequality and political unrest were key contributors.

Frequently Asked Questions 

How would you define a feudal society?
Ans: Feudalism was a type of socio-political structure that existed in France up to the 18th century. In this arrangement, peasants, or vassals (tenants) received land from landowners or lords in exchange for their duties, primarily the military services to their lords.

What effects did the French Revolution have?
Ans: Following are the effects of the French Revolution:
Establishment of democratic governance.
A political system based on equal rights was developed.
The welfare of the common citizen became a top concern.
All of Europe developed a sense of nationalism as a result.

 What were the French Revolution’s founding principles?
Ans: Liberty, equality, and fraternity were the three guiding principles of the French Revolution.

Introduction

In European history, the French Revolution was a revolutionary movement that brought about profound societal and political changes. The role that women played in the revolution was amazing. Women’s participation was only allowed in the domestic sphere before the Revolution or during its early years. They all desired, though, to air their concerns and political beliefs and take part in public life like men. In addition to their responsibilities to their families, women were drawn to the idea of equality and fraternity. Through various forms of action, women gradually began to unite and demand equal rights. They wanted to be in control of their destiny and would not accept being treated as passive second-class citizens.

Traditional Duties of Women

• Before the French Revolution began in the eighteenth century, women were viewed as second-class citizens. They were not given any political rights or a recognized role in society.
• Men made all the significant decisions on their behalf. Before they got married, their fathers made decisions for them. After being married, their husbands made all of their decisions.
• Even the enlightenment-era progressive writers were opposed to women’s political rights. No property rights of any kind were granted to women.
• They were still viewed as purely sexual beings, which made them very distinct from their male counterparts and perfectly suited for domestic settings.
• Although third estate women were not allowed to receive a formal education, they continued to labor in tailoring shops, laundries, or as maids in the homes of the wealthy to make a living.
• Before the revolution began, women from the upper class participated in gatherings called salons to explore novel concepts regarding education, individual rights, and other social issues.
• Like their male counterparts, French aristocrats or ministers, they had the benefit of receiving a formal education and were regarded as intellectuals. Although, they still lacked the legal authority to engage in public life.

Revolutionary Activism of Women

Many of these women from various social strata rushed to the streets to express their rage once the uprising began, capitalizing on the tumultuous political climate.

Women’s March

In 1792, many women marched in a parade carrying weapons through the Legislative Assembly’s chambers and onto the Tuileries Gardens before arriving at the Monarch’s home after learning that the King was planning a counter-revolution. The high cost of cereals and the scarcity of bread had thousands of women in an uproar. At the infamous Women’s March on Versailles, which drew more than 60,000 women, the demands of feminist revolutionaries Théroigne de Méricourt and Pauline Leon for women’s full citizenship and the economic crisis were interwoven. Nevertheless, the call for women to be granted citizenship was ignored.

Newspapers and Social Groups

Whatever the circumstances, women could not be barred from participating in public life during a revolution. The French Revolution also had a large element of individual women’s revolutionary participation. A periodical published by Nicolas de Condorcet supported the call for women’s political rights. A group called Cercle Social was eventually founded by this publication to promote equal rights for women in marriage and education. It was led by a Dutchwoman named Etta Palm d’Aelders.

Activism through Writing

Through their writings, women writers also expressed their discontent. To prove that the government had been depriving women of rights since the dawn of time, Olympe de Gouges issued a document in 1791 called “Declaration of the Rights of Woman” that used language and a structure similar to the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.” She paid a terrible price for her advocacy by being put to death by the guillotine.

Political Organization of Women

Women’s revolutionary activism extended beyond simple street protests and demonstration planning. To show their unwavering support for the Republic, Leon, and her ally Claire Lacombe founded the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women in 1793. They did this by donning tricolored symbols, protesting the high price of bread, stockpiling grains, and eventually bringing down the price increase. When their demands were not met, they quickly turned to riot, looting stores, grabbing food that had been hoarded, and kidnapping police officers.

Banning and Execution of Women Activists

The men in the revolution, meanwhile, were against women’s equal rights. The Revolutionary Republican Women were being demonized as dangerous agitators while they were ruling the Jacobins. The ladies were sent home to look for their children and homes. Men reminded them that women were made by nature to bear and raise children. They cannot acquire citizenship rights. Their proper setting is the home, while men belong in the public sphere. Political power can only be used by men. Most of the female activists who were punished suffered detention, arrest, execution, or exile.

Summary

Women played a spectacular and important role in the French Revolution. Participating in the revolution were women from every social group and class. By taking part in the protest, speaking out about economic difficulties, founding political clubs to demand their rights, publishing newspapers, and creating plays, women exposed how they were being denied their rights. Women actively participated in the revolution despite knowing the outcome of their activity. Women gained the rights to education, marriage consent, and divorce with the establishment of the Revolutionary government.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Who were the Jacobins?
Ans. Members of the political group known as the Jacobin Club were known as Jacobins. It was a well-known club during the French Revolution and a revolutionary political organization. They adhered to the constitution, which protected natural rights and upheld human rights.

2. Who killed the Jacobin leader Jean-Paul Marat? Why?
Ans. On July 13, 1793, Charlotte Corday assassinated Jean-Paul Marat, the leader of the Jacobins. The publication “The Friend of the People,” published by the Jacobin leader Jean-Paul Marat, severely criticized those who questioned the Revolution’s shift toward violence, threats, and other forms of aggressiveness.

3. Who was Marie Antoinette? What was her role in Monarchical rule in France?
Ans. After marrying King Louis XVI of France, Marie Antoinette assumed the role of queen of France. Because of her opposition to progressive reform ideas, Marie Antoinette became notorious among the French populace. Her popularity is thought to have contributed significantly to the French monarchy’s downfall.

Introduction

Numerous independent and semi-independent regional powers emerged as a result of the Mughal Empire’s decline. The Jats were agricultural settlers who lived in the areas surrounding Delhi, Agra, and Mathura. They were outraged by Aurangzeb’s repressive policies and began to rebel against the empire. Under the leadership of Gokul, one of the Tilpat zamindars, these revolts began in 1669. After some initial challenges, they were successful in creating the new Jat state of Bharatpur, which was led by Churaman and Badan Singh. Under Surajmal, this Jat state of Bharatpur attained its pinnacle. He not only established a productive government but also greatly increased the size of this empire. This state covered the areas from the Ganges in the east to Chambal in the south. Subas Agra, Mathura, Meerut, and Aligarh were also added to the state.

Expansion of Jat power (1680-1707)

There were many leaders of the farmer community, who raised their voices against the oppressive systems of the Mughals. This peasant group has several leaders who spoke out against the Mughals’ repressive regime. Brij Raj of Sinsini was one such ruler during the seventeenth century who joined up his forces with the other Jat rebels to form an alliance against Mustafa Khan, the faujdar of Agra. He was instrumental in bringing together the people who wished to refuse to pay the taxes demanded by the Mughal government. Even though the local faujdar had earlier promised to assist in this case, he ultimately decided to commit suicide alongside other villagers rather than pay the money. The faujdar Multafta Khan was ultimately conquered by Brij Raj after calling for a major fight with the faujdar’s army.

Raja Ram, the son of Bhajja Singh, was another great representative of the Jat caste (Brother of Brij Raj). By engaging in looting and plundering within the Mughal territory, he issued a severe challenge to the Mughals. He created a true standing army out of the Jat communities after learning from the failure of Gokula’s uprising. He understood how crucial it is to have a well-equipped army to combat the well-equipped armies of the Mughals. And to accomplish this, he began forming alliances with the chieftains of other Jat clans. For security, he even began constructing forts in the deepest parts of the jungle and started practicing guerrilla warfare techniques.

The northern region of the Mughal empire began to deteriorate when Aurangzeb was occupied fighting Marathas in Deccan. Jats recognized a benefit in this. To weaken the emperor’s hold over the undefended Mughal lands close to Agra, they began launching incursions there. They even attempted to raid Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra. They ultimately ran upon Abul Fazal, the local faujdar, who had defended Akbar’s tomb and the Mughals from this Jat invasion.

In 1688, Raja Ram returned to Sikandra, and this time he was successful in looting from Akbar’s grave. Aurangzeb was so outraged by the Jats‘ behavior that he despatched his grandson Bidar Khan to put an end to the Jat rebels. The Rajputs of Chauhan and Shekewat were engaged in conflict during the time. Raja Ram sided with Shekhawat, whereas Bidhar Khan sided with Chauhan. Raja Ram was killed in this combat in 1688 by a Mughal musketeer.

Prosperous agriculturalists

In the northwest of the Indian subcontinent, the Jats were the largest community (India and Pakistan). This community was made up of Indian Hindus and Sikhs.

They started as sheep and cattle herders, but eventually switched to farming as their primary activity. Due to the development of the Indus valley civilization, when people began settling down along the Indus River, the Jats likely became farmers due to this reason. Additionally, the Indus River supplied a rich area and sufficient water for farming. They began to rule the region between the two significant Mughal states of Delhi and Agra in the 1680s. Under their rule, the two significant states of Panipat and Bhallabhgarh developed into significant commercial hubs. Over time, this landowners’ community rose to prominence in different regions like Punjab, UP, Delhi, and Haryana.

Surajmal and the kingdom Bharatpur emerged as a strong state

The Jat community’s ongoing uprising against the oppressive Mughal rules eventually resulted in the establishment of Bharatpur as an independent Jat state under the leadership of SurajMal. Under the direction of Sadat Khan, the Mughals attempted to siege Bharatpur.

And one of the outposts was successfully captured by the Mughals. However, as soon as Raja Surajmal learned of this, he attacked them and trapped the Mughal camp. Later, Sadat Khan reached a settlement and left Bharatpur. Raja Suramal offered Chaudhari Charan Das protection in 1792 from Murtaza Khan (the governor of Faridabad) and the royal Farman was issued by the Mughals. Even one of the Rohilla nawab told Safdar Jang, (the Mughal grand wazir), that this Jat could not be vanquished. The Mughals took this counsel to heart and took no more action against the Jat. Faridabad was granted to Surajmal as Chaudary Charan das’ jagir. This strengthened the bonds between the Mughals and Jat.

When Ghazi-ud-din ousted Safdar Jang as grand wazir, he decided to seek revenge on Surajmal, this flared tension between Jats and Mughals once more.

He besieged the fort in 1754 with the assistance of Maratha. For three months, this siege went on. A Jat rani Kishori Bai requested their assistance and hence the Marathas were forced to assist the Jats in their fight against the Mughals.

As a result of Ahmed Shah Abdali besieging the fort of Dig and demanding a tribute that Surajmal was unable to pay, Surajmal then had to battle with Afghans. After a while, Abdali lifted the siege and left the region, but he returned in 1760 to besiege another Koli fort (modern-day Aligarh). After that, Suraj Mal once more decided to conquer Agra Fort to reclaim his power in the Doab region, and he managed to accomplish so. Surajmal eventually lost his life during a battle with Rohillas under Najib-ud-daulah. However, upon Surajmal’s passing in 1763, the Jat state started to crumble.

Summary

Several kingdoms attempted to declare their independence from the Mughal rule as the Mughals fell apart. One of them was the Jats, who were displeased and outraged by Aurangzeb’s anti-Hindu actions. The Jat communities began to rebel against these rules in the second half of the 17th century. All of these uprisings opened the stage for Badan Singh to build the Jat state of Bharatpur. Raja Surajmal deserves all the credit for uniting these Jat rebels and turning Bharatpur into a Jat stronghold. The Jat kingdom, however, started to fall once the powerful commander Suraj Mal passed away since none of his successors could manage the country as effectively as he had.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What and when did the Gokula Rebellion happen?Ans: Gokula Singh, a Jat zamindar of Tilpat, served as the head of the Gokula uprising in 1669. By withholding the extra land tax, he questioned the Mughal government’s authority.

2. Which of Aurangzeb’s measures offended the Jats‘ religious beliefs?
Ans: The Jat group was most outraged by Aurangzeb’s anti-Hindu religious agenda. He implemented several actions, including jizyah imposition, temple destruction, conversion to Islam, and religious persecution. The Jats became disgruntled as a result of Aurangzeb’s these actions.

3. Who was Sadat khan?
Ans: As the governor of Awadh, Sadat Khan, also known as Nizam-ul-Mulk, served. Later, as he fought alongside the Mughal emperor in the Deccan campaign against the Marathas, Aurangzeb bestowed upon him the title of “Khan Bahadur.” He was very well-known as the creator of the Awadh principality,

Introduction

Following the French Revolution, France’s political system changed from an absolute monarchy to a democratic republic. The establishment of the National Assembly, the Reign of Terror, and Directory rule all occurred during France’s republican period. September 1792 saw the founding of the first republic, France. This First Republic persisted until May 1804, when Napoleon Bonaparte ushered in the First Empire or Napoleonic France. After the declaration of the revolution, from 1792 until the present, France had five republics.

How France Became a republic

The anger against the Ancient Regime in French society grew when King Louis XVI assumed power, laying the groundwork for the French Revolution. The National Convention created a new constitution in 1791 as a result of this uprising, which limited the king’s authority by establishing a constitutional monarchy and securing citizens’ basic rights. With the monarch’s abdication in 1792, this constitutional monarchy likewise came to an end. After that, in 1792, the newly elected members of the National Assembly unanimously proclaimed France to be a republic, which led to the establishment of the French Republic.

The Jacobins took advantage of the political unrest to grab control of the National Convention, ushering in a period of terror that saw widespread killing and bloodshed throughout France. With the middle class seizing control and establishing the Directory government in France, this situation and the Jacobin republic came to an end in 1794. However, there were numerous disputes even during the directory rule, which led to the establishment of the French Consulate under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte as the First Consul. Napoleon later proclaimed himself the Emperor of France and ended the First French Republic to establish the First Empire.

Helping Factors

The despotic, autocratic monarchs were overthrown by the French Revolution, which also created new political and social structures based on the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The new form of governance was the democratic republic. The conditions were right for France to become a republic for several causes, and things happened:

• Replacement of the absolute monarchy with the Constitutional monarchy 
• End of the monarchy and the formation of the National Convention 
• Reign of Terror 
• Directory Rule

Replacement of the absolute monarchy with the Constitutional monarchy

The king’s concentrated power was reduced after the Revolution. In the new constitution that the National Assembly drafted in 1791, the parliament served as a check on the king’s authority. The legislative, the executive branch, and the judiciary now shared power. This system of government was known as a Constitutional monarchy.

End of the monarchy and the formation of the National Convention

Even though he ratified the constitution, King Louis XVI was not pleased with the reduction of his authority. He, therefore, began secret negotiations with world leaders who were likewise concerned about the progression of the French Revolution. As a result, the neighbouring nations of Austria and Prussia consented to assist him in putting down the uprising. In 1792, the National Assembly declared war on these nations after learning of King Louis’ and his allies’ plans.

The French revolutionaries recruited volunteers from many provinces to fight for the creation of popular supremacy by overthrowing the king and nobles. Massive destruction was caused by these revolutionary battles, especially for the common people. The Jacobins’ siege on the Tuileries Palace in 1792 resulted in the capture of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. On September 21, 1792, they held elections to choose the members of the new assembly, which became known as the National Convention. The constitutional monarchy came to an end as a result of this event, and France became a republic. The monarch and queen were later put to death in 1793.

Reign of Terror

The Jacobins took over as the dominant group when France was declared a republic. Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of this group, oversaw the harsh punishments and rule that began the reign of terror in France in the years 1793–1794. During this time, those who were thought to be republican and revolutionary foes were put to death. To maintain the Jacobins’ hegemony, he outlawed other political organizations. The “enemy” was beheaded using a contraption called a “guillotine.” The French people began to rebel against Robespierre’s rule as the leader of the Jacobin Club, which led to his execution.

Directory Rule

The more affluent middle class once again came into power when the Jacobin regime was overthrown. They drafted a new constitution, in which they once again restricted voting to members of the affluent class. This resulted in the establishment of two legislative councils. In addition, they established a Directory, a five-person executive body, to make decisions rather than consolidating authority in the hands of a single executive like the Jacobins. However, this division of authority among various organizations and departments led to regular disputes between the legislature and the directory.

Summary

Following the French Revolution, France had to undergo several political structure changes, including the overthrow of the absolute monarchy, initially led by King Louis XVI, the emergence of the constitutional monarchy, the Jacobin government, the Directory rule, and the ascension of Napoleon Bonaparte to the position of Emperor. The nobility lost its rights, and the society’s feudal framework was abolished.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What does ‘Republic’ mean?
Ans. “Republic” describes a state in which its residents directly or indirectly elect the state’s leader. The position of the head is also not inherited.

2. Why were people dissatisfied with the rule of King Louis XVI?
Ans. People were unsatisfied for numerous reasons during the reign of King Louis XVI: Since Louis XVI’s reign, France has spent a lot of money fighting wars in Europe. The royal treasury was burdened by the king’s extravagant lifestyle. The king had unchecked power and was not answerable to the people. The king increased taxes on the Third Estate because the economy was close to collapse.

3. Where was King Louis XVI executed?
Ans. King Louis XVI is put to death by guillotine in Paris’ Place de la Revolution, one day after the French National Convention found him guilty of conspiring with foreign powers and sentenced him to death.