Category: Social Studies

Introduction

Along with the abolition of feudalism in France, the French Revolution brought about several changes to the country’s social and governmental structures. The tyrannical authority of the monarchy in France came to an end during the Revolution in the early 1790s. The virtues of liberty, equality, and freedom propelled the idea of constitutional monarchy, where the constitution served as a check on the king’s power.

The National Assembly’s recognition kept a balance of authority between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. In the end, the Revolution succeeded in shifting sovereignty from the king or National Assembly to the people, resulting in the establishment of France as a democratic republic.

Life in France after the Revolution

Post-revolution, the life of the French changed drastically. Following were the changes observed-

• The First and Second Estates’ privileges were abolished during the French Revolution, which also put an end to the monarchy. With this, the Third Estate’s capitalists seized control and established a government based on the principles of liberty, fraternity, and equality. But there were some internal and external conflicts that the new government had to face.
• The Jacobins, a radical political organization, took advantage of the internal strife at the National Convention to seize control and institute several radical reforms.
• Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of the Jacobins, declared a “Reign of Terror” from 1793 to 1794. People were executed during this time period because they were “enemies” of the revolution.
• His adversaries included the clergy, the aristocracy, and even some members of his party who didn’t share his viewpoints. The authoritarian rule of the Jacobins did not last long, with the execution of Robespierre.
• After the collapse of the Jacobin administration, the well-off middle class took control and chose to create a new constitution with authority granted to the Directory and the Legislative Council.
• The legislative councils and the directory frequently disagreed with each other. This political unrest paved the way for Napoleon Bonaparte, a military dictator who expanded the French empire to much of Europe and certain regions of Africa.

Restructuring Administration

Due to the constant unrest in the French government, an entire restructuring of the administration was required. This was done in the following ways-

• The National Assembly created a new administration to foster national integration through local autonomy.
• The country was divided into 83 departments under the new government, and these departments were further divided into several provinces, districts, cantons, villages, etc. The Assembly attempted to decentralize authority through this division by allowing residents of these departments to decide their local representatives.
• The National Assembly dissolved the judicial system of the previous Regime as part of the new administrative changes, and restructured the legal system.
• The revolutionaries established a criminal court in each department and a civil court in each district. The justice of the peace in each district took the place of the feudal system of justice.
• The revolutionary administration tried to increase everyone’s access to the legal system, regardless of background or class, in this fashion.
• In addition, the revolutionaries adhered to the egalitarian concept in the field of trade and commerce.
• Laissez-faire policy, which advocates little government intervention, served as the Assembly’s guidance as it allowed for individual initiative in the economy despite customary practices and barriers. Landowners and peasants were free to grow anything on their lands.

Social Structure of France after the French Revolution

The social structure post-revolution was the following-

• The French Revolution essentially abolished the ranking privileges based on the three Estates that were part of the feudal society.
• The upper middle class gained influence once privileges for the aristocracy and clergy were abolished.
• It was prioritized to uphold the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The notion that all men are born free and have equal rights led to the establishment of a social order based on equality for everyone.
• Even after the revolution, women’s status in France remained the same despite having an equitable society. As a result, women began to demand a status in society that is equal to that of their male counterparts.
• Women initially had to deal with disappointment, but over time, the revolutionary government made significant reforms to improve women’s status. However, it took women nearly 200 years to get the right to vote.

Summary

One of the most notable moments in European history was the French Revolution. It led to several reforms in France’s social and political spheres. Following the revolution, France saw a restructuring that culminated in the fall of the Ancient Regime, the end of feudalism and the loss of privileges for the upper class. Emphasis was given towards the welfare of the common man. The reforms established post-revolutionary period favoured women and put an end to enslavement. The French-initiated wave of nationalist movements began to spread to other parts of the world.

 

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Who was Napoleon Bonaparte?

Ans: Napoleon Bonaparte was a capable military commander. Due to his impressive military strategies, he advanced from the rank of soldier to General during the French Revolution. French citizens who were tired of the Directory’s ineffective leadership were praising him as a hero. He eliminated the Directory and proclaimed himself First Consul. The French Revolution came to an end with this, and the Napoleonic era began. He declared himself the emperor of France in 1804.

2. What are the three Estates in eighteenth-century French society classified as?

Ans: The French society of the eighteenth century was divided into three groups, known as “Estates”:

• The clergy is a member of the First Estate.
• The Second Estate was made up of nobles or aristocracy.
• The middle class, thinkers, businesspeople, employees, artisans, and peasants made up the Third Estate.

3. Who were the members of the National Assembly? Why did it develop?

Ans: The third estate members thought that the voting in the Estates-General meeting should be done individually and, not, a single vote per estate. They were denied their voting rights in that meeting. Thus, the Revolution began on June 17, 1789, when the National Assembly came into existence. The members of this assembly were the third estate people which included, the middle class, businessmen, farmers, peasants etc.

Introduction

The Gonds are one of the major tribal communities in India. They originally hail from the parts of central India that include the states of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha. They have a rich and diverse cultural heritage that includes their own language, art, music, and traditional practices. 

Peculiarities of Gond Society, art and culture

A gond society typically  follows a clan-based social organization, where each clan holds a distinct identity and plays a crucial role in maintaining social cohesion and kinship ties. They practice a matrilineal kinship system, tracing descent and inheritance through the female line. Every gond possess a strong sense of identity and unity. Their shared cultural practices, traditions, and social organization contribute to a collective identity, fostering a sense of belonging and cooperation within the Gond society.

Bird painting

Artistic expressions hold a significant place in Gond culture. Gond art, characterized by its vivid colors and intricate designs, is renowned worldwide. Through their art, the Gonds depict the harmony between humans and nature, mythological narratives, and the sacredness of their surroundings. Music is also an integral part of their cultural fabric, with traditional songs and instruments captivating listeners.

Occupation and Livelihood of the Gonds

The Gonds’ deep connection to nature is evident in their lifestyle and spiritual beliefs. Forests, hills, and rivers hold immense significance in their lives. 

• Agriculture is a primary occupation for the Gonds, involving the cultivation of crops such as millets, pulses, rice, wheat, vegetables, and oilseeds. 
• Historically, hunting and gathering played a significant role in their sustenance. 
• Forest-based activities that serve them in earning livelihood include collecting non-timber forest products like bamboo, tendu leaves, honey, and lac,.
• Animal husbandry is practiced by rearing cattle, goats, and poultry, providing them with dairy products, meat, and additional income through the sale of livestock-related products.
• Many Gonds also engage in wage labor, working as agricultural laborers, construction workers, domestic helpers, and in various other sectors to earn a living.

Challenges faced by the Gonds

The Gonds face numerous challenges that impact their social, economic, and cultural well-being. These challenges include land rights issues and displacement, leading to the disruption of their traditional way of life and livelihoods. 

Economic disparities and limited access to education and healthcare contribute to their socio-economic marginalization and perpetuate cycles of poverty. Rapid modernization and external influences pose a risk to Gond culture, with the younger generation becoming disconnected from their heritage. Environmental degradation threatens their close relationship with the natural environment and traditional livelihoods. 

Moreover, social discrimination and limited representation hinder their social mobility and participation in decision-making processes. Efforts are underway to address these challenges, including land rights movements, educational initiatives, healthcare interventions, and cultural preservation efforts. By focusing on sustainable development and empowering the Gond community, it is hoped that their well-being and rights can be safeguarded for future generations.

Summary

The Gonds, with their rich cultural heritage and intricate artistic expressions, provide a glimpse into the vibrant tapestry of indigenous communities in India. Their deep connection to nature, distinctive customs, and artistic prowess make them a remarkable group deserving of recognition and appreciation. By understanding and supporting the Gond community, we can help preserve their culture and contribute to their empowerment for generations to come.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. What is the religion of the Gonds?

The Gonds traditionally follow animistic beliefs, which involve worshipping spirits and deities associated with nature, ancestors, and household objects.

Q2. What is the traditional clothing of the Gonds?

Gond men traditionally wear a dhoti (loincloth) or lungi (wrap-around skirt) along with a shirt, while women wear sarees or lehengas with a blouse and adorn themselves with traditional jewelry. The clothing often features vibrant colors and intricate patterns reflecting their artistic traditions.

Q3.  What is the language spoken by the Gonds?

The Gonds have their own language, known as Gondi. It belongs to the Dravidian language family and has several dialects spoken by different Gond communities.

Introduction

The Battle of Plassey was a crucial juncture in Indian history. On June 23, 1757, in Bengal, the foundation for Hindustan’s humiliation during a two-century period was laid. 150 years after their initial arrival as a trading company, the British were aiming to rule India. The worst part was that India’s leaders were so focused on their internal issues that they were unaware of any external threats. Due to the same mistake, the Delhi Sultanate was founded in India in the 12th century.

The country and the regular people paid the price for stupidity. India evolved from the “Golden Bird of the World” to the “Golden Cash cow of Britishers.” We shall learn about the same conflict here. 

Why did the war happen ?

Weakening of Mughal Empire- After Aurangzeb, a plethora of useless successors controlled the empire. This led to the rapid decline of the power of the Mughals. These rulers like Bahadur Shah I, Mohammad Shah, Farrukh Siyar, etc. were either busy safeguarding their throne or indulged in excessive pleasures. 

Rise of regional nawabs: Nobles and provincial governors of the Mughal Empire began slicing the empire in half. creating a foundation for regional dominions. In 1724, Hyderabad was the first to declare its independence, followed by Bengal and Awadh. Under Baji Rao I’s direction, the Marathas advanced rapidly. So, their desire to rule the entire subcontinent appeared to be a possibility. 

British abuse of commercial privileges: In 1717, the Mughal ruler Farukk Siyar granted the East India Company (EIC) free trading privileges, which came to be known as the “Magna Carta” of English trade. For just Rs 3,000 a year, they were effectively granted the permission to conduct unrestricted trade in Bengal. But by handing it to neighbourhood traders, they abused it.  

British militarization: Although the EIC initially pretended to be a business, it eventually revealed its true intentions. They wanted to be in charge of the area and the profitable trade with India. As a result, the development of Fort William in Calcutta was a clear indication. They also engaged in combat with other European states in an effort to take control of more land.

Black Hole Tragedy: Siraj-Ud-Daula, the nawab of Bengal, was enraged by the fortification of Fort William and the loss of revenue. On June 20, 1757, he attacked and captured 146 British soldiers. 123 of these soldiers died while being held in the cramped space. This was the start of the war.

The War

When Robert Clive learned of the Black Hole, he marched from Madras to Bengal. He had a tiny army, but a really clever idea. He became friends with Rai Durlabh, Jagat Seth, and Mir Jafar, the Bengal army’s supreme commander. The nawab, Siraj-d-Daula, on the other hand, made an alliance with the French. In order to drive the East India Company out of Bengal, Siraj and the French intended to conquer Fort William. The tragic Black Hole Tragedy occurred during their attempt to achieve their objective. Nevertheless, many historians question its veracity. 

Finally, on June 23, 1757, the conflict broke out. The battle took place in Bengal’s Palashi area. Siraj and Fench had over 50,000 warriors, but Clive had only 3000 men under his command. But the betrayal of Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh, and Jagat Seth forced the Nawab of Bengal to submit. Siraj’s army had more over one-third of its soldiers abstain from combat. In the meantime, Clive attacked his rivals with a calculated and successful strike. The British won the battle, which was over in a single day. Siraj-Ud-Duala attempted to flee but was apprehended and killed by Miran, Mir Jafar’s son.

After the war

• As promised before the battle, Mir Jafar was anointed as the Nawab of Bengal. The British installed him as a puppet monarch. 
• A new power emerges: The British were now the only foreign power in India after successfully wooing the Europeans. They now posed a threat to the territories ruled by the Mughals, Marathas, Mysore, etc. 
• Diwani rights: When the British acquired the Diwani rights in Bengal, the EIC started exploiting the peasantry. . 
• Economic Colonisation: Following the battle of 1757, India was economically colonised. The East India Company asked Mir Jafar to write laws that supported their business and interests. It was difficult for other European powers to enter.
• The British substantially fortified Calcutta in order to entirely control the trade from its ports. To safeguard the Company’s assets, several troops were sent into action.
• Mir Jafar desired to be an independent leader rather than a puppet. This prompted him to revolt against the Company. 

Summary

The end of Indian dominance on the international scene began with the Battle of Plassey. After Bengal, the entire Indian subcontinent suffered the same fate. Only as an offshoot from the East India Company did the Mughals, Marathas, Wodeyars, and Sikhs exist. Following the Battle of Plassey, the Company ended up acknowledged as the only power during the Battle of Buxar in 1764. Along with Bengal and Awadh, they even routed the mighty Mughal army.   

 

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. Who governed the Mughals at the time of the Plassey battle?

Ans. The Mughal emperor at the time of the Battle of Plassey was Alamgir II. From 1754 until 1759, he only held power for a short period of time. Because he was a poor administrator, he chose to ignore such a serious crisis.

Q2. Exactly who took part in the Battle of Buxar?

Ans. The East India India Company under the command of Major Hector Munro engaged Mir Kasim (the Nawab of Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daula (the Nawab of Awadh), and Shah Alam II (the Mughal emperor) in battle at Buxar.

Q3. The Treaty of Allahabad was signed when?

Ans. In 1765, the three defeated monarchs were asked to sign the humiliating Treaty of Allahabad as a result of their defeat in the Battle of Buxar.

Q4.Why did the Mughal empire lose power?

Ans. Some of the main factors contributing to the decline of Mughal dominance in India include ineffective leaders, religious policies, disloyal nobility, a disregard for science and wars of succession.

Q5. What year did the Battle of Wandiwash take place?

Ans. The English and French engaged in combat at the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760. It was a battle for dominance of the Indian subcontinent in the Third Carnatic War.

Introduction

Europe entered an era of exploration during the Renaissance in the 14th and 15th century. Exploring new maritime routes was a top priority for everyone, from the kings to the regular people, due to scientific curiosity. Month-long sails were undertaken by sailors from Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, France, and England. On these excursions, a sizable number of people lost their lives. But the success they eventually experienced helped pave the way for centuries of European dominance of the globe.

Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus, respectively, found the sea route connecting Europe with India and the New World. These expeditions paved the way for the two European powers to colonise these two areas in the future but latter colonization was not successful. Here, we’ll discover how and why these pathways were found, as well as their results.

Vasco da Gama and His Early Life

Portuguese sailor and explorer Vasco da Gama. His early life is just vaguely known. Even the date of his birth is debatable. Vasco da Gama was born in the 1460s in the Portuguese port city of Sines. For the Duke of Viseu, Estevao da Gama, served as a knight. Isabel Sodre, his mother and the Duke’s family were very important to her. 

Vasco da Gama

About Vasco da Gama’s life, hardly much is known. Nevertheless, it is asserted that he attended school in the town of Evora, where he studied mathematics and navigation. 

The Discovery of India

India was the world’s primary source of spices in the 15th century. Indian spices were imported by traders from all over the world for a variety of uses. However, the Arab traders had already created a monopoly. The proximity to India, similarities in culture, and knowledge of the monsoon all contributed to this. 

Therefore, the monarchs of Europe desired a different route to India. Portugal’s King John II assigned this assignment to Vasco da Gama. By seizing French ships in Setubal and the Algarve, da Gama had already established his credentials. On July 8, 1497, he headed a fleet of four ships with 170 men in search of India. He circled Africa and India for more than 24,000 ocean kilometres. They eventually rounded Cape of Good into the Indian Ocean after enduring the clams of the Gulf of Guinea. As fate would have it, they came to Arab pilot while stopping at the Malindi port in modern-day Kenya to get supplies. 

He led their fleet of ships over the ferocious southwest monsoon winds to Calicut in Kerala. They arrived at the Indian beaches on May 17, 1498. As expected upon arrival they were welcomed with extreme astonishment and suspicion by the locals. Although the natives met visitors often. But most of them are either East Asian or Arabic. 

However, Vasco da Gama met the ruler of Calicut Zamorin and received his permission to trade in spices. He reached home with two ships of freight and earned over 60 times the profit. Only 55 of the 170 made it through the trek, though. The trip was a major success and afterwards the Dutch, English, and French followed the same track. It was devastating for India as the saga of Indian colonialism and exploitation began.

Christopher Columbus and his Early Life

In the city of Genoa, it is thought that Christopher Columbus was born in 1451. His mother’s name was Susanna Fontanarossa, and his father, wood weaver Domenico Colombo, was also his mother. He first worked for the wealthy Genoese families as a business agent. He began to become interested in sailing while on business trips. By that time, he reportedly travelled to England, Ireland, Portugal, and even Iceland. But as it became difficult for Europe to reach India, he looked for someone to fund his expeditions to find the routes.

Christopher Columbus 

The Accidental Discovery of the Americas

Just like Vasco da Gama and the rest of Europe Christopher Columbus was trying to reach India via sea. Unlike the rest, he did not plan on going around the Cape of Good Hope. Instead, he intended to sail west, and since the earth is spherical, he reasoned that this would bring him to India.

Ferdinand II and Isabelle I, the Catholic Monarchs of Aragon, Castile, and Leon in Spain sponsored his voyage to the west of the Atlantic. In 1492, he departed from the Spanish port of Palos. He headed a fleet of three ships named Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria carrying 90 men. They arrived at a tiny Bahamas island. Columbus was sure that he had found the Indies. There he met the local and named them, “Indians”. 

Columbus made three additional voyages, stopping in Brazil, Cuba, and other Central American countries. He was certain, though, that Japan and other parts of Asia were represented by these islands. Despite this misunderstanding, he received a great prize for his expedition and even received the Spanish government’s appointment as Governor of the Indies.

 

Summary

The Age of Exploration established a link between the old and new worlds. Many ways were found to escape Arab exploitation. Both the British Empire and Europe made enormous profits from these routes. The opening of the Suez Canal by the British in 1869 marked a new dramatic turning point in the marine route from Europe to India. Through the Suez, a new age of extensive trade between Asia and Europe was inaugurated. It continues to be the most cost-effective commercial route linking Asia, Africa, Australia, and Europe even 163 years after it was built.  

These two sailors have contributed in an unprecedented manner. The level of financial and personal risk associated with these sails was insurmountable. 

 

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. Columbus voyaged to today’s USA?

Ans. Columbus was fairly close to the USA, yet he was unable to travel there. He even made it to Cuba, which to him appeared to be Japan. And the United States was not what it is today, both geographically and culturally, in the fifteenth century.

Q2.British, Portuguese, Mughals, French, and Dutch, give the  arranged order of their entry into India.

Ans. Portuguese, Mughals, Dutch, British, and then French were the proper arrivals in India. All of these empires, with the exception of the Mughals, entered India under the guise of trade but ultimately colonised it.

Q3. Whose rule did the Britisher enter India under?

Ans. In 1608, during Jahangir’s reign as Mughal emperor, the British made their way to India. In 1615, he anchored off Surat and obtained a trading permit.

 

Introduction

Numerous new cities emerged in mediaeval India. There were several sorts of settlements, and each one was created with a certain objective in mind. Towns of this kind included administrative, commercial, and craft sorts. Towns were the sign of any kingdom’s growth and wealth. Every town’s market was a significant feature. In such locations, the market’s growth was clearly visible. Each of the two had its own administration, with Kotwals and Faujdars being its two most important components. The town’s craftsmanship and architecture was another appealing aspect. In the mediaeval era, art and craftsmanship were at their pinnacle. The biggest achievements in architecture and craftsmanship are attributed to empires like the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughals, and the Vijaynagar Empire. 

The most rich people at this period were the craftspeople. In the latter half of the 16th century, cities like Ahamadabad and Murshidabad grew to become some of the largest commercial centers, while many wealthy cities saw a slow decline. Hampi, Surat, and Masulipatnam were the three most significant cities. 

 Mediaeval Indian city

Hampi

The fortified city of the Vijayanagara empire was Hampi. In the year 1336, it was founded in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin. Hampi served as the capital of the Vijayanagara empire. It was a commercial town. With some of the most recognisable buildings and structures ever built, Hampi was an architectural marvel. In addition to praising Hampi’s magnificent architecture, the Portuguese explorer Domingo Paes also mentioned the city’s grand foyer and strong fortification.

Unlike any other city, the walls of the city were not built up with the help of any cementing materials or Mortars, but they were built by interlocking stone slabs together. Hampi was a city of distinctive architecture. The buildings had majestic arches, domes and pillared halls with decorated walls.

Hampi was bustling with commercial and cultural activity in the 15th and 16th centuries. The city attracted a large number of traders, notably Moors (Muslim merchants), Chettis, and European traders. The most significant temple had a sizable prayer hall, and it was dedicated to Shiva. In the city, Devdasi tradition predominated. Devdasi gave daily performances for the god, the king, and the people. The most significant celebration at that time was Mahanavmi, now known as Navaratri.

There was a Mahanavami platform, which was the place for the king. The king received his guests and accepted homages from his chieftains and used to watch the dance, Music performances and wrestling from that platform.The city flourished for 200 years and was a sign of prosperity of the Vijayanagara empire. With the Mughal and decani sultan’s invasion, the empire fell in 1556 and the city was destroyed by the invaders and the magnificent city of Hampi became a ruin.

Surat: A gateway to the West

Surat served as the industrial and commercial centre of the western markets. During the Mughal era, it was quite prevalent. Because all trade to west Asia originated there, it was known as the gateway to the west. Moreover, it was a port city where all trade was conducted over the Gulf of Ormuz. It was also known as The gateway to Mecca because the ship sailed from here for Mecca. In 1689, according to a British traveller, Ovington described that approx hundreds of ships from all over the world could be found in the ports of Surat at any time.

Europeans, including the British, Dutch, French and Portuguese formed their factories and warehouses at surat. Zari, the textile product of Surat, was very famous.   The Kathiwadi seths and mahajans had a huge banking system in the city and the Surat Hundi was honoured in far-off markets in Egypt, Iraq and Belgium At the end of the 17th century, the downfall of surat started, with the falling of the Mughal empire, the control of sea trade by the Portuguese and the transfer of the factories to Bombay. 

Masulipatnam

In the seventeenth century, the Krishna River Delta was home to the trade town of Masulipatnam. The town became the hub of bustling commerce. 

Masulipatnam was once a tiny fishing village, but the simplicity of docking ships in its port made it helpful to all traders and offered the merchants a place to live, according to William Methwold, an officer-in-charge of the East India Company. Masulipatnama was under Dutch and British administration, and the Dutch erected a fort there.

The Golconda kings were interested in the trading of spices and textiles rather than European merchants. The town prospered as a result of the rivalry for trade monopoly between the Golconda monarchs, Persian traders, Chettis, Telugu Komaties, and European traders. 

However, the subsequent participation of the Mughals and the rivalry between the British and the Dutch made it difficult for Europeans to engage in open trade. East India Company began looking for alternate locations where they might get political and administrative support as a consequence of this problem. The little town of Masulipatnam once again reverted to its pre-British state when the British made Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras their commercial hubs.

Summary

Towns served as the centre of commerce and trade in mediaeval India. Kings built a number of walled cities throughout the time. Towns were given special importance since they were a significant source of revenue for the monarchy.  There were several distinct town kinds, including administrative, commercial, manufacturing, and port towns. Any kingdom’s port towns were essential because they served as the centre for all international and significant domestic trade. Surat and Masulipatnam were two well-known port cities.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. Where is Masulipatnam located?

Ans:Masulipatnam is a town located on the delta of the Krishna River. The town is known for its fishing industry. During the 17th century, the city was well-known for its strong trade ties. Both the Dutch and English East India Companies tried to control Masulipatnam, but the Dutch ultimately built a fort there.

Q2. What was Surat known as in the past?

Ans: Surat, previously known as Suryapur, is a city in the Gujarat state of India. Gopi, a Brahman who constructed the Gopi Tank (a water reservoir) in 1516 and gave the region the name Suryapur. In 1520, the city’s name was changed to Surat. In the 12th and 15th centuries, Muslims pillaged it.

Q.3 What were the most important features of Hampi?

Ans: Humpy was the most important town of the Vijayanagara empire, it was a fortified town. Its main feature was its architecture, trade as well as its culture.

Introduction

Surat in Gujarat, along with Cambay (now Khambut) and later Ahmedabad, served as the center of western trade during the Mughal era. Surat was the entry point for trade with West Asia throughout the Gulf of Ormuz. Surat has sometimes been referred to as the entrance to Mecca due to the large number of pilgrim ships that left. There were several different castes in Surat. At some point in the seventeenth century, Surat was home to factories and warehouses built by the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. Retail and wholesale businesses existed in Surat. They offered cotton garments in these stores. It is important to note that markets for Surat textiles, which are known for their gold ace borders, include West Asia, Africa, and Europe. People arrived at the city from all over the world, and the kingdom supplied them with all of the amenities.

A gateway to the West, Surat

Surat was the hub of Western trade during the Mughal Empire. Surat is said to be the entry point for trade with West Asia over the Strait of Hormuz. It was a multiethnic metropolis where people of all castes and religions lived. In Surat throughout the 17th century, factories and warehouses were built by the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. In Surat, there were a lot of retail and wholesale establishments. These shops sold garments made of cotton. It is significant to note that Surat fabrics with Zari or Gold Ace borders were sold in West Asia, Africa, and Europe. People from all over the world flocked to the city, and the government gave them access to everything they needed. In Surat, the Mahajans or Kathiawad Seths ran a significant banking business. a far-off market like that of Cairo in Egypt.

What kind of trades were practiced in Surat? 

Surat was the hub of Western trade during the Mughal Empire. Surat is said to be the entry point for trade with West Asia over the Strait of Hormuz. It was a multiethnic metropolis where people of all castes and religions lived. In Surat throughout the 17th century, factories and warehouses were built by the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. In Surat, there were a lot of retail and wholesale establishments. These shops sold garments made of cotton. It is significant to note that Surat fabrics with Zari or Gold Ace borders were sold in West Asia, Africa, and Europe. People from all over the world flocked to the city, and the government gave them access to everything they needed. In Surat, the Mahajans or Kathiawad Seths ran a significant banking business. a far-off market like that of Cairo in Egypt.

Its main application was as a metal for coins. In addition, a number of everyday objects were made of copper. Prices for copper in Surat ranged from Rs. 18 to Rs. 22 per mound. The English company sent copper to specific Surat merchants in accordance with a contract.

Describe Surat during the time of Mughal empire

In the Middle Ages, Surat played a significant role as a port city for the Mughal Empire in India, especially in the 17th century. A nation’s seaport is always seen as important since it acts as the centre of its foreign trade. India’s Surat port was regarded at the time as an essential part of the nation’s economic machinery.

In the year 1514 CE, the Portuguese referred to Surat as one of the important cities for trading in various items. This gold mohur was produced at the Surat mint for the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan during the month of Azar. Surat was ruled by the Muslim family of the Mirzas. In order to seize Surat, Emperor Akbar laid siege to it in 1573. The Mirzas gave the Portuguese the place in return for their aid in the battle. After reaching Surat, the Portuguese soldiers made the decision not to confront the formidable imperial force and took a diplomatic stance in front of the Emperor.

The army of the Mughals took control of Surat. Under Akbar, Surat was a significant port city. It got revenue from customs and other dues totaling Rs. 4 lakhs each year. Given the importance of the port, the Emperor designated a Mutasaddi, or revenue.

What led to Surat’s decline?

In the 1750s, the merchants who dominated trade started to declare bankruptcy. Over the course of the 19th century, European businesses increasingly increased their dominance. At first, local courts made a number of concessions to European businesses. Due to their superior organization and access to more resources than their rivals, the businesses were able to monopolize commerce. Local traders were unable to compete with the bigger shipping corporations, which led to a sharp reduction in exports from the ports, which contributed to the decline of Surat and Hooghly. Trade financing through the credit system started to dwindle. In the final few years of the 17th century, trade in the port of Surat decreased from Rs 16 million to Rs 3 million.

New ports like Calcutta and Bombay arose as a result of the fall of the Hugley and the old port of Surat, and India’s colonial power increased. European ships and European businesses handled trade through the new ports of Bombay and Calcutta.

Summary

Different ethnic groups lived in Surat. The city was known for its diversity. The Portuguese, Dutch, and English all had workshops and warehouses in Surat during the 17th century. There were many retail and wholesale stores in Surat. These stores offered cotton clothing. It is important to note that Surat was a major textile market, with people from all over the world coming to the city.The state provided them with all the amenities they needed. The Kathiawad seths were the owners of huge banking institutions in Surat. The far-off markets of Cairo, Basra, Baghdad, and Antwerp all honoured the Surat hundis.

FAQs

1. Where exactly is Masulipatnam?

The town of Masulipatnam is situated on the Krishna River delta. The fishing sector in the town is well-known. The city was well-known for having robust trading links in the 17th century. Masulipatnam was under the hands of the Dutch and English East India Companies, although the Dutch were ultimately successful in establishing a fort.

2. Which Indian city has been referred to “The Diamond City”?

Surat is known as “The Silk City” or “The Diamond City,” and it is one of India’s cleanest cities. Another epithet for it is “The Green City.” Its present is the most vibrant, and its historical past is also the most varied.

3. Where was quicksilver imported from?

An other item that was brought into Surat was quicksilver. Both Europe and China provided the raw materials. There were considerable price fluctuations for the metal in the latter part of the 17th century. The price of quicksilver in 1650 was Rs125 per mound. The large price increase was brought on by China’s supply failing to meet demand. Even though Surat bought the majority of its lead from Europe, the market was closed. Only the local Governor was permitted to buy imports into Surat; all other traders were forbidden.

Introduction

New kingdoms were established in the early mediaeval period. There were both large and small towns founded with the new monarchy. The majority of the settlements were close to a river or a body of water, making it simple for traders to sell their goods there. In the beginning, the rulers taxed the land and captured a certain percentage of the peasants’ harvest. The countryside and rural regions were where it was most common to witness people cultivating their land. The rulers discovered new sources of taxes with the emergence of new towns and rich cities. They began taxing business owners and dealers. Along with the growth of new cities, trade also prospered.

Foreign traders came to purchase and sell their wares, and in order to do so, they were required to pay taxes and customs fees on those goods. Small mandis and hatas, where people from neighbouring villages flocked to sell and purchase goods, may be found in villages. There were streets populated by various craftspeople, including potters, sugar producers, carpenters, blacksmiths, and toddy manufacturers. Samantha erected fortified palaces in the towns and imposed taxes on artisans, traders, and goods during the early period and Zamindars during the later mediaeval era. They occasionally gave local temples the authority to collect taxes.

Taxation for traders

In the early mediaeval era, taxing traders was a crucial way for governments and kings to raise money. Customs duties, often referred to as portoria or teloneum, were the main type of taxes and were imposed on goods entering or departing a certain area. Customs officials posted at ports or along trade routes would frequently collect this charge, which was assessed at a predetermined proportion of the value of the goods being traded.

Trade had a significant role in the governance of the Mauryan kingdom. Trade on land and at sea was significant. We may read about tariffs on the movement of products in Kautilya’s Arthashastra. For the supervision and collection of taxes on the trade routes, employees were assigned.

Due to an increase in commercial activity during the Gupta era, the banking system under the Chief Banker’s management improved. Because weavers and printers had to pay half the cost of their products in taxes, traders were subject to substantial tax rates. Taxes had to be paid to the king by several percent.

In addition to import duties, traders had to pay various taxes, such as the poll tax, which was a set sum paid by each individual, and the hearth tax, which was dependent on the number of fireplaces in a home or company.

Trade flourished throughout the Mughal era, and there were three levels of trade:

• Local trade
• Inter-Regional trade.
• Foreign trade.

Some types of taxes were levied at each of these levels. The tax levied on goods was not uniform; it varied depending on the value of the commodity. The traders who engaged in overseas commerce were subject to the majority of taxes. The Mughal traders were so wealthy that they could afford large properties and a luxurious lifestyle.  At that time, even nobles received loans from powerful merchants, who also contributed a sizable share of taxes to the emperor and participated in governance. Despite the impression that the emperor’s taxation of merchants was mild, they nevertheless had to pay high taxes to the local chieftains. 

Jahangir was one of the emperors who eliminated the customs taxes on goods traded with Kabul and Qandahar. Indian trade with West Asia experienced a golden age during the Mughal era.

Manufacturers’ taxes

In the mediaeval kingdom, there were separate taxes for sectors and manufacturers. A weaver in Rajasthan was required to pay one man of yarn per year. One rupee is to be paid annually on each carding bow by the cotton carder. 

Weavers in Maharashtra were required to pay a tax of one-fourth of a taka per loom. A barber in Vijayanagara was required to pay 1 visa each day. A cobbler in Rajasthan was required to provide a pair of shoes every month, while producers of soap and oil were required to pay a predetermined percentage of their sales as tax. In the Vijayanagara kingdom in south India, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, silversmiths, and carpenters were all required to pay 5 panama every year. 

Taxation of trade income

Income from trade taxes was the second-largest source of revenue for emperors during the mediaeval era. The land tax and agricultural taxes were the main sources of income for the mediaeval kingdoms. The emperor took control over half of the cultivation during the Mughal Empire. 

Emperors levied taxes on a wide variety of goods and industries. Both kinds and cash were used to pay these levies.  Jaggery, oil, cotton, dye, thread, clothing, salt, coconut oil, butter, and many more items were subject to taxes in kind in Rajasthan in the tenth century. Earlier taxes were mostly paid in kind. All such taxes were collected by the local zamindars and samantas.

Summary

One of the earliest procedures carried out by any government is taxation. Indian monarchs and chieftains levied taxes on land, agriculture, and trades from the Ancient through the Mediaeval periods. The local chieftains and samantas used the taxes from the Market as a source of revenue. Each region had its own tax system; some accepted payments in certain forms, while others only accepted cash. Numerous Indian societies had a history of being traders, and trading was the foundation of their entire way of life. During the Mughal era, a number of large merchants rose to prominence who engaged in overseas commerce and amassed enormous fortunes. Local groups including the banjaras, Chhetiars, Marwari Oswals, Hindu Baniyas, and Muslim Bohras were small traders.

Frequently Asked Question

 Q1. What was Chauth and Sardeshukhi?

Ans: Shivaji introduced the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi land tax. Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were equal to one-fourth and one-tenth of the total amount of goods produced in the region, respectively. 

Q2 Why did Kabul and Qandahar grow in importance as trading hubs in the sixteenth century?

Ans: Because both of these places were on the silk road and produced high-quality dry fruits, carpets, and horses, they gained political and economic significance.

Q3.  What do you mean by guilds?

Ans: Guilds were groups of dealers and businesspeople that looked out for one another’s interests. To safeguard the traders, guilds were established, and they had an impact on the emperor’s court.

Introduction to Thanjavur

In mediaeval India, towns served as the centre of each empire. In the ninth century, large towns and cities began to appear. Large emirates like the Cholas, Chalukyas, and Pallavas ruled at that time. Each kingdom featured several cities, which were divided into categories based on their functions. Some towns served as administrative centres, where monarchs and nobles lived and oversaw all administrative operations. Other classifications included commercial, port, temple, and other types of towns. The majority of towns had a market and were defended. Due to the fact that cities were one of the kingdom’s main sources of income, the monarchs gave them particular protection. Towns occasionally served more than one purpose. Thanjavur served as the Chola empire’s administrative centre and a popular pilgrimage destination because of the several well-known temples and shrines that were located there.

Administrative Centres

Vijayalaya established the Chola kingdom in the year 850 CE. One of the strongest kingdoms at the period was the Chola empire. All of southern India, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives came under its rule. Thanjavur had been taken from the Pallavas by Vijayalaya. Rajaraja and Rajendra Chola were the greatest kings of the Chola kingdom. 

Thanjavur was chosen as the Cholas’ capital. To commemorate their conquests, the Chola monarchs erected several temples. The Rajarajeshwar and Brihadeshwara temples, which Rajaraja Chola erected, are two of the most well-known temples. King and queen sculptures and images were frequently erected on the grounds of temples by the Cholas. 

The administrative zones of Thanjavur, Thiruvaiyaru, Pattukkottai, and Peravurani are separated by Thanjavur, which serves as the district’s administrative centre. Each zone has a number of cities and villages under its control. The Thanjavur Municipal Corporation, which manages the city’s civic administration, is also based in the city.

Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centers

Towns that were constructed around a particular temple were known as temple towns. These towns were often guarded, and social and economic activity were tied to the temples. Thanjavur is a model temple town in every way. It is centred on the Brihadeshwara temple, which Rajaraja Chola constructed in the eleventh century. The Chola empire’s capital was the town of Thanjavur. 

Kings built temples to honour their victories and to show their adoration for the gods. Grants and lands were given to the temples. Temples were given permission to manage their own affairs, collect taxes from the surrounding area, and perform rituals, festivals, and provide food for pilgrims. Additionally, travellers and nobility gave donations to the temples. 

Temple towns and pilgrimage centres are significant religious destinations that attract a large number of devotees and tourists from all over the world. A temple town is a city or a town that is primarily known for its numerous temples, which are the major tourist attractions. These temple towns are often considered to be sacred sites, and they have a rich cultural and religious heritage. Thanjavur, also known as Tanjore, is a prominent temple town in Tamil Nadu, India, known for its Brihadeeswara Temple, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Pilgrimage centres, on the other hand, are places that are considered holy and are often associated with specific religious beliefs or practices. These centres attract a large number of devotees who come to offer prayers, seek blessings and participate in various religious rituals. Some of the famous pilgrimage centres in India include the Char Dham Yatra, the Kumbh Mela, and the Amarnath Yatra.

Overall, temple towns and pilgrimage centres play a vital role in the religious and cultural life of people, and they contribute significantly to the tourism industry in the country.

Thanjavur is home to several temple towns and pilgrimage centres that attract devotees from all over the world. Some of the famous ones are:

Brihadeeswarar Temple – The Lord Shiva-dedicated temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is renowned for its 12-foot-tall statue of Nandi and its imposing gopuram (gateway tower). (the bull).

The Thiruvanaikaval Temple – It is situated near Trichy, 55 km away from Thanjavur. It is devoted to Lord Shiva and is renowned for the rock-cut cave temple and its underground water streams.

Navagraha Temples –  Thanjavur is home to a number of temples honouring the nine celestial bodies, or navagrahas. The “City of Temples” in Kumbakonam is where the temples are situated.

Alangudi Temple – The Lord Guru (Jupiter) temple at Alangudi, which is 45 km from Thanjavur, is devoted to him. It is thought to be among the nine Navagraha temples.

Summary

Numerous new kingdoms and empires led to the establishment of numerous towns and cities. In mediaeval India, many types of cities existed. Some of them were towns with administrative, commercial, port, or temple towns. Based on these qualities, towns were classified. When some people began progressively gathering close to the temple, the town of the temple was born. Priests, labourers, artisans, and anybody else who provided services to pilgrims and looked after temple management comprised these villages. India’s eighth-century temple town was called Thanjavur. The Kingdom of Chola founded it, and it went on to become one of India’s most well-known towns. In addition to serving as an administrative town, Thanjavur also served as a temple town. People from neighbouring villages also benefited from the trade as Thanjavur’s market expanded. Kings gave temples grants, and they also possessed their own land that allowed them to levy taxes on.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q.1 How did temples affect urbanisation?

People made pilgrimages to temples on a regular basis, and certain communities—priests, craftspeople, workers, etc.—lived close to the temples to serve the needs of the pilgrims. The neighbourhood came together, and over time, it expanded and took the shape of a town. These towns were significant for trade and business.

Q2. What Thanjavur temple towns are well-known?

Particularly its temple towns, Thanjavur is renowned for its extensive cultural and architectural history. The most well-known temple towns in Thanjavur are Pattukkottai, Kumbakonam, Darasuram, Thiruvaiyaru, and Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

Q3. What purpose do the pilgrimage sites serve in Thanjavur?

For millennia, Thanjavur has been a significant hub for Hinduism and Jainism, with several pilgrimage sites drawing tens of thousands of pilgrims each year. These places, which are admired for their beautiful temples, festivals, and ceremonies, are said to be of spiritual importance.

Introduction

During ancient times, building temples, tanks, and mosques were significant activities in various civilizations. These structures were not only places of worship but also served as cultural and social centres. Temples were built to honour and offer prayers to the deities, while tanks were constructed to provide water for irrigation and daily use. Mosques were built as places of worship for followers of Islam. Building these structures required immense resources, and it was often seen as a mark of the ruler’s wealth and power. The construction of these buildings was also a community effort, bringing people together and reinforcing social bonds. Today, these ancient structures stand as symbols of our rich cultural heritage and architectural prowess.

Building Temples, Tanks, and Mosques

In order to display its power and wealth, a mediaeval Indian empire built architectural wonders. Tanks, mosques, and other structures were among these monuments. The ruler frequently adopted the name of God and built the temple in his honour. This aided in his portrayal of himself as being on par with God. Rajarajeshwara Temple is an example.  However, Muslim leaders asserted that they were the “Shadow of God.” Mosques have geometrical patterns and floral carvings on their walls. While the temples had pictures of the gods, kings, priests, and occasionally even regular people.  Water provision was regarded as a noble act. In order to give water to the populace, Sultana Iltutmish constructed the “Hauz-i-Sultani” or the King’s reservoir outside Delhi-i-Kuhna.

Temple Construction in the Early Eleventh Century

Early eleventh-century India saw a substantial change in the architectural style and architecture of temple construction. An innovative form of temple architecture that was characterised by towering vimanas (gopurams), complex carvings, and magnificent mandapas emerged under the Chola dynasty in the southern region of the country. (pillared halls). A famous example of this design is the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur, which was erected by King Rajaraja Chola I. Regional variations in temple architecture also began to appear at this time, representing the diversity and depth of Indian culture.

Temple Construction

Ashoka attempted to grow his empire by spreading nonviolent Dhamma throughout his country. To sow the Dhamma and Buddhism, he built pillars across his realm. Temples eventually replaced pillars as labour became more skilled and empires grew wealthier. 

Dhamma and Buddhism

The temples were constructed in order to: 

• Promote the emperor’s religion. 
• To illustrate the empire’s wealth and strength. 
• To experience the splendour of the realm, people travel from all over the country to the temples.
• Priests that were selected by kings were in charge of these temples. 
• Numerous yajnas are performed by the priests and kings, which validate the emperor’s rule.
• Temples served as the town’s centre for education and cross-cultural interactions. 
• It occasionally served as a secret royal treasury to preserve the kingdom’s wealth.

Gardens, Tombs and Forts

Gardens, tombs, and forts were important elements of Indian architecture and culture during the Islamic era. Islamic emperors like the Mughals integrated and integrated Persian and Central Asian architectural forms into Indian traditions. While tombs were constructed as mausoleums for kings and their family, gardens, like the iconic Mughal Gardens, were used as emblems of power and elegance. Forts were built for tactical and military reasons as well as to serve as luxurious royal residences. In addition to being functional architectural marvels, these structures also displayed the artistic and cultural fusion of Indian and Islamic cultures.

The Red Fort 

The Red Fort in Delhi is one example of the gardens, tombs, and forts constructed under the Islamic rulers in India. The Red Fort, constructed in the 17th century by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, housed the Mughal monarchs for about 200 years. Beautiful gardens, elaborate tombs, and fortified walls with bastions and gates are all part of the fort’s exquisite architecture. Famous for its gold and silver throne, the fort’s Diwan-i-Khas or “Hall of Private Audience” features pavilions constructed of marble that have been beautifully carved. The Red Fort, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, provides proof of the Mughal Empire’s superior architectural talent. 

Summary

The kings of the Islamic kingdoms erected beautiful structures including mosques, tanks, and temples. These structures served both political and religious objectives. Tanks were constructed to store water for drinking and agriculture, and temples were frequently converted into mosques. Mosques were created to serve as both places of worship and centres of the local community. These buildings frequently included elaborate carvings, calligraphy, and mosaics as decorations, demonstrating the Islamic rulers’ artistic and architectural brilliance.

FAQs

Q1. Why were mosques, tanks, and temples constructed during the Islamic era?

Temples, tanks, and mosques were constructed under the Islamic monarchs for a variety of purposes. Temples were constructed to accommodate the local population’s religious customs, and water storage tanks were created to provide a steady supply of water for the locals. In contrast, mosques were constructed as houses of prayer for Muslims and frequently served as the hub of Islamic knowledge and culture.

Q2. What kinds of patterns can be seen on the Taj Mahal’s walls?

Ans. The Taj Mahal’s walls consist of pietra dura designs, similar to the majority of Islamic structures. In addition to other Indo-Islamic designs, it includes floral patterns and geometrical patterns.

Q3. Which primary aspect of Buddhism practices idol worship of the Buddha and his image?

Ans. Buddhism has historically been divided into the Hinayana and Mahayana major sects. The Mahayana among them worships Buddha statues and other idols.

Introduction

When Akbar passed away in 1605CE, his remarkable forty-nine-year rule came to an end. Salim or Jahangir, Akbar’s son, rose up in rebellion during the latter years of his father’s reign in the seventeenth century but was eventually caught. But Akbar forgiven him, and Jahangir governed from 1605 CE to 1627 CE after being recognized as the throne’s rightful ruler. The heritage of the Mughals was then carried by Jahangir. The Mughal kingdom flourished after Jahangir’s death under the rule of Shajahan and then Aurangzeb. After Aurangzeb’s passing in the early eighteenth century, under the later feeble Mughals, the Mughal Empire began to fall. 

Influence of  Mughals in the latter half of the seventeenth century

The Mughals were a very strong group in the seventeenth century due to their control over nearly the entire Indian subcontinent and the immense riches and resources they commanded. Additionally, the kings who presided over the kingdom during this time were among its strongmen. These emperors, like Jahangir, Shahjahan, and Akbar, expanded the kingdom over a vast area of land with their wise policies.

The Rulers of the Mughal Dynasty from Babur to Aurangzeb, with their Ancestor Timur

Salient aspects of the Mughal Empire in the seventeenth century

In the seventeenth century, the Mughal Empire was renowned for:

• Salim, the oldest son of Akbar, became emperor of the Mughals in 1605 CE and adopted the name Jahangir. Most of Akbar’s strategies were maintained by him. His “Golden Chain of Justice,” which allowed the populace to address their problems with him, was his most well-known accomplishment.
• Many European trading companies, including Dutch, Portuguese, and English ones, started to travel to India to develop their trade relations during Jahangir’s rule.
• Shahryar took over as emperor of the Mughals after Jahangir died.(son-in-law of Nur Jahan). He was however murdered by Shahjahan.
• In 1658 CE, Aurangzeb replaced Shahjahan as the monarch. The Mughal Empire included nearly the entire Indian peninsula during his reign, from Chittagong in the east to Kashmir in the north. Other areas included the Hindu Kush in the west and Karnataka in the south. Due to his ineffective managerial practices, the empire’s size could not be maintained.
• The Mughal Empire maintained its strength throughout the seventeenth century under strong leaders. But by the end of the seventeenth century, it started to deteriorate as a result of Aurangzeb’s policies and the ineffectiveness of later, less powerful Mughals who were unable to uphold the Empire as effectively as the earlier ones. 

The decline of the Mughal Dynasty

The Mughal Empire started to deteriorate under Aurangzeb’s rule. Many people felt isolated by his policies, which opened the door for their uprisings. The high level of taxes placed on farmers, which made their circumstances worse, hurt the industry as well. Due to Aurangzeb’s successors’ incompetence and weakness, the quality of Mughal authority continued to deteriorate even after his passing. The nobility, on the other hand, increasingly began to challenge Mughal rule as they grew in strength. Finally, taking advantage of all of these factors, foreign invaders began conquering the Mughal kingdom, and at the same time, foreign trading companies started participating in Mughal government problems.

Summary

Babur established the vast Mughal Empire in 1526 CE, and it flourished until the seventeenth century under the competent rule of Mughals like Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan, and Aurangzeb. With the entire subcontinent under its control, the kingdom attained its considerable geographical expanse. However, after the seventeenth century, it began to deteriorate because of the feeble and incompetent Mughals who followed Aurangzeb. With the rise to dominance of the regional kingdoms and the English East India company in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the Mughal Empire gradually collapsed.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What exactly was the “Golden Chain of Justice”?

The “chain of Justice” was established by Jahangir. If any official in Jahangir’s government were to engage in corruption of any kind, the offended party could instantly and fearlessly ring the bell to draw the Emperor’s immediate notice. The 80-foot-long necklace was constructed entirely of pure gold. It weighed about 100 kilograms and was made up of 60 chimes.

2. Who ruled as Mughal Emperor at the start of the 17th century?

However, the Mughal royal building has on occasion been assigned a date of 1600, during the reign of Akbar, Babur’s grandson. After the passing of Aurangzeb, the last significant monarch, who oversaw the empire’s expansion to its greatest degree during his rule, this imperial organization persisted until 1720.

3. Who made up the Mughal dominant class?

Umara, Mansabdars and jagirdars, and were members of the Mughal elite aristocracy who held prominent positions. The individuals who held key positions in the government.

4. What led to the uprising under Aurangzeb’s rule?

The sikhs were incensed by the guru tegh bahadur’s execution, which led to the formation of the kalsa, an armed alliance headed by guru gobind singh. Revolts were carried out by jats, rajputs, sikhs, and marathas, who also persecuted the mughals. The kingdom was thus diminished.