Category: Physics

Introduction

Ray diagrams allow us to ascertain the direction of the light as it moves to a certain location on an image of an item. In the Ray diagram, the incident and reflected rays are shown as lines with arrows. It also helps in determining the path of the light. Spherical mirrors are defined as having painted curved surfaces on one of its sides. Convex mirrors are spherical mirrors with painted inner surfaces, whilst concave mirrors are those with painted outward surfaces.

Representation of Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors Using Ray Diagrams

Ray diagrams may demonstrate how an image is created by tracing the routes taken by the incident and reflected light rays. They are designed in a way that allows each person to focus on a certain area of the object’s depiction. These ray diagrams rely on where the item is.

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Rules for image formation of Spherical Mirror

• After reflection, a ray parallel to the main axis travels through the mirror’s focus.
• A ray that enters the primary focus after being reflected by the surface aligns with the primary axis.
• After reflection from the mirror surface, a light ray passing through the centre of curvature will reflect at a 180^o angle.
• If a light beam is reflected at the mirror’s pole but is not parallel to the primary axis, it will obey the law of reflection.

These are all the above rules for obtaining an image formed by a concave mirror or convex mirror.

Table of image formation by a concave mirror

Sr-no	Position of the object	Position of the image	Image Size	Nature of the Image
1	Between Pole and Focus	Behind the Mirror	Enlarged	Virtual and Erect
2	At Focus	At Infinity	Highly enlarged	Real and Inverted
3	Between Center of Curvature and Focus	Beyond Center of Curvature	Enlarged	Real and Inverted
4	At the Center of Curvature	At the centre of curvature	Same Size	Real and Inverted
5	Beyond Center of Curvature	Between Focus and centre of curvature	Diminished	Real and Inverted
6	Infinity	At the focus	Point size, Highly diminished	Real and Inverted

Ray diagram for Convex Mirror

Image formation by a convex mirror for different positions of the object.

Sr. No.	Position of the object	Position of the image	Image Size	Nature of the Image
1	Between infinity and the pole	Between Pole and focus behind the mirror	Diminished	Virtual and erect
2	Infinity	At focus behind the mirror	Point Size, Highly Diminished	Virtual and erect

Mirror formula

The relationship between the object distance (u), image distance(v), and focal length (f) of the mirror. 

1f=1v+1u

You can read more about Mirror Formula and different types of mirror in this article.

Summary

Ray diagrams are created when we use lines on paper or another flat surface to represent light rays and other rays. Understanding where and what kind of picture will develop is made easier with the aid of the Ray diagram of a spherical mirror. Hospitals, businesses, and other commercial settings often use these mirrors. It will be simple for us to analyse them now that we are aware of the two types of spherical mirrors and their applications regarding how the ray will behave after reflection.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What is a Ray diagram?

Ans: Ray diagrams show the route travelled by light and what happens when it strikes a surface. In a ray diagram, each ray is represented as follows: a straight arrowhead pointing in the direction of the moving light. A ray diagram is a diagram that depicts the path that light takes to reach a certain location on an object’s image. On the diagram, rays represent the incident and reflected rays (lines with arrows).

2. How do you find out whether a mirror is concave or convex?

Ans: Spherical mirrors have a curved side painted on them. A mirror may be made by splitting a hollow spherical into pieces, painting the exterior, and using the interior as the reflecting surface. Concave mirrors are what these are. The outside of the hollow spherical becomes the reflecting surface if the object is painted from the inside. Convex mirrors are the name for this kind of mirror. Both mirrors serve different functions and provide different picture types.

3. What type of image is formed by concave and convex mirrors?

Ans: The light reflects off an object when it is placed in front of a mirror, creating a real or imagined image of it. When the light beams meet, a real image is created. Virtual pictures are produced when light beams from a point appear to diverge. A plane mirror can only ever generate a virtual image, but a spherical mirror can produce both virtual and real images. A concave mirror will create a real or virtual image. Virtual, upright images can only be reflected in a convex mirror. Depending on where it is placed, the concave mirror can provide an actual or virtual image. No matter where the item is, the convex mirror’s image is only a virtual and upright representation.

Introduction

An engine used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy is an AC generator. Steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, and other similar devices all generate this energy. It creates a sinusoidal waveform of alternating current. Alternators are another name for AC generators. The electromagnetic induction law of Faraday is the foundation of an AC generator. According to this rule, anytime a conductor is exposed to a variety of magnetic fields, an electromotive force (EMF) is generated across it. This EMF is referred to as an induced EMF. Electromagnetic induction is the term for this phenomenon. Induced electromagnetic induction is the process by which a coil develops a potential difference as a result of changes in the magnetic flux flowing through it. Several types of AC generators, including polyphase generators, rotating field generators and spinning armature generators.

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What is an AC Generator?

An AC generator is an engine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy in the form of an alternating driving force. To provide a consistent magnetic field, an AC generator uses two magnet poles.

AC Generator Parts and Function

An electromagnet with two poles, the North Pole and the South Pole, is a component of an AC generator.  Below is a discussion of certain AC generator components, including the rotor, slip rings, and armature loop.

a. Field

The output voltage of an AC generator is obtained from the source using conductor loops. The field’s main function is to provide a magnetic field that will stimulate the gadget.

b. Armature

The armature coil is a coil that is part of the generator and produces output voltage. An armature coil’s job is to move electricity through the generator.

c. Prime Mover 

The primary mover of an AC generator is either an engine or a turbine. It serves as the appliance’s power supply.

d. Rotor 

A rotor is a revolving component with magnetic field spirals. It generates the necessary output voltage.

e. Stator

A stationary part holding the armature spirals is called a stator. A stator includes three different parts. They are stator frame, stator core, and armature spirals.

1. Stator frame: A frame that grips the stator core and armature spirals.
2. Stator core: There are slots in the inner part of the core that hold the armature spirals. A steel or iron is coated on the walls of the stator core to decrease the eddy current losses.
3. Armature winding: They are bounded on the stator core.

f. Slip Rings

There are two small rectangular blocks fixed with slip rings called carbon brushes. They are attached to the galvanometer.

Principle of Electric Generator

The basis of AC generators is Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. A current-carrying coil placed in a consistent field of force produces the driving force that is referred to as the law.

Construction and Working of an AC Generator 

An AC generator consists of a rectangular coil with two magnet poles attached to it on either side. Two rings are used to fasten the coil’s (or loop’s) perimeter. The rings are joined together with brushes. When a conductor travels in a magnetic field, an electric 

The generator induces a current in it.

Between the magnet’s poles, a rotating rectangular coil, also known as an armature, is used. The magnetic field’s vertical axis is the centre of rotation. The flux in contact with the armature changes as it rotates constantly. The alteration in flux results in the generation of an emf. As a result, the galvanometer, slip rings, and carbon brushes produce an electric current. While direct current only travels in one direction, alternating current sometimes flips direction.

The production of the AC generator shown in the above graph is described as

1. Induced EMF is zero when the coil is at point A because it moves equidistantly from the magnetic field’s curve at that point.
2. A gradient of 90o is created between the coil‘s motion and the magnetic field as it moves from point A to point B, and induced EMF is at its highest level during this time.
3. Moving the coil from A to B results in the same motion being equally far from the magnetic field and no generated EMF.
4. The induced EMF is once more at its highest when the coil is moved from C to D since its motion is antiparallel to the magnetic field and its angle is 270o.
5. The coil completes one cycle and moves equally far from the magnetic field when it moves from D to A. Induced EMF is therefore zero.

Advantages of AC Generator Over DC Generator

Category	AC Generator	DC Generator
Output Voltage	Higher Output Voltage.	It cannot generate a higher output voltage as it damages the functioning of the commutator.
Construction	Simpler construction	Construction is complicated due to a commutator.
Functioning	Works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.	DC generator functioning is more complex than an AC generator.
Maintenance	It demands less maintenance.	It demands more maintenance than an AC generator.
Cost	Cheaper	Costs higher than AC generator
Efficiency	Transmission efficiency is higher as AC reduces transmission losses.	Transmission efficiency is lower.

You can also read “What is AC Voltage Capacitor?” for explanation of AC voltage.

Summary

A generator is an engine that changes one type of energy into another. Large currents are produced by electric generators for usage in industrial and domestic applications. There are two different kinds of electric generators: DC generators, which convert mechanical energy into direct current. A generator of alternating current that converts mechanical energy. On the Faraday law of EMI theory, an AC generator was placed. In an AC generator, the flux in contact with the armature varies as it rotates continuously. The shift in flux causes an emf to be generated. As a result, the galvanometer, slip rings, and carbon brushes produce an electric current. As an AC generator produces higher output voltage, it is easier to build, requires less maintenance, is more efficient, and is less expensive than a DC generator. Large currents are produced by electric generators for usage in industrial and domestic applications.

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Can we Generate EMF without Rotating the Coil in an AC Generator? Explain.

Ans: Yes, emf may be produced without the coil revolving. If the armature is made to move at a velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field, Emf can also be produced.

2. What is the reason for Heat Loss in the Generator?

Ans: Reasons for the heat loss in the generator can be, (a) generation of the by-products like carbon dioxide, and molecular friction, which can reduce the efficiency. The heat loss hinders the efficiency of the generator. So, the efficiency is never 100%. 

3. What is the Driving Force?

Ans: Induced emf is also termed as the driving force and can be expressed as, 

                                                      ε = N B Aωsinωt

where N is the number of turns in the coil, B is a magnetic field, A is an area, ω is the angular velocity

So, in an AC generator, the induced emf is proportional to the applied magnetic field.

4. Give examples of DC Sources.

Ans: The electrical appliances like radios, televisions, and solar panels. DC only travels in one direction and lacks any polarity.

Introduction

In simple words, a reflecting surface is a mirror. The research about mirrors dates back centuries, in Germany, mirrors were first created 200 years ago. Famous chemist Justus Von Liebig discovered mirrors in the year 1835, where the transparent glass was converted into mirrors by applying a coating of silver on one side of it. There are several proofs of using polished metal surfaces as mirrors in ancient civilizations. There are some types of mirrors that can reflect sound, which is an intriguing feature of mirrors, known as acoustic mirrors. In World War 2, those that could hear the sounds made by enemy aircraft were used.

What is Mirror?

A reflecting surface is a mirror. The law of reflection governs how a mirror functions. According to the law of reflection, when a light ray strikes a reflective surface, the incident light ray, the reflected light ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane, and the angle of incidence and angle of reflection are both equal.

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Types of Mirrors

There are three types of mirrors that are widely used

a. Plane Mirrors

A smooth reflecting flat surface characterises plane mirrors. We utilise these common mirrors most frequently in our daily life. The reflection of the image in a plane mirror is in the same proportion as the original, but the images are inverted from left to right.

b. Convex Mirrors

Convex mirrors are spherical mirrors. These mirrors have an outward curvature. Convex mirrors provide a simulated, erect, and reduced image. These also go by the name of diverging mirrors.

c. Concave Mirrors

Concave mirrors are spherical mirrors as well, but they have an inward curve. The positioning of the object affects the concave mirror’s ability to produce an image. These also go by the name of converging mirrors.

Mirror Formula

The relationship between an object’s distance, an image’s distance, and the focal length of the mirror is given by the mirror equation/mirror formula. If the distance between the object and the mirror is u, the distance between the image and mirror is v, and f is the focal length of the mirror. Then the mirror formula can be expressed as

                                                                                                                      1⁄f = 1⁄u + 1⁄v

What is Magnification?

Magnification is an increase in the size of the image that a spherical mirror produces about the size of the item. The height of the picture to the height of the object is known as the magnification ratio.

Magnification Formula for the Mirror?

The magnification formula of the mirror can be given as,

                                                                                                m = h‘⁄ h

Where m is the magnification, h’ is the height of the image, and h is the height of the object.

The Magnification Formula of the Mirror can also be given as,

                                                                                           m = –v ⁄ u

where m is the magnification, v is the distance between the image and mirror, and u is the distance between the object and mirror.

Therefore, if the height of the object and image are equivalent, then the magnification will be equal to 1. Magnification will be greater than 1, or the image will be enlarged, if the image size is larger than the object size. Image size will be reduced if the image is smaller than the object, or if the magnification is less than 1.

Concave mirrors can either generate an erect or inverted picture depending on the object’s location, while convex mirrors always provide an upright image. As a result, depending on where the item is maintained, the magnification of a convex mirror is always positive, whereas the magnification of a concave mirror can be either positive or negative. Convex mirrors usually create pictures with lower quality, therefore their magnification is less than 1.

Summary

Concave, convex, or plane surfaces can all reflect light, including mirrors. The relationship between an object’s distance, an image’s distance, and the focal length of the mirror are known as the “mirror equation” or “mirror formula.” Magnification is an increase in the size of the image that a spherical mirror produces about the size of the item.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1.What is the Focal Length of a Mirror?

Ans: Focal length is the distance between the Centre of the mirror and the focus of the mirror. And Focus is the point through which the reflected light rays pass when incident light rays are parallel to the principal axis. The focus is on the midpoint of the pole and centre of curvature. We can find the focal length of any mirror using the below formula

                                                                                                           1⁄f = 1⁄u + 1⁄v

In most cases, the focal length is given in millimeters/centimeters. We may determine the angle of view, how much of the scene will be reflected in the mirror, and the mirror’s magnification by looking at the focal length.

2. What is Normal?

Ans: Normal is a line that is drawn perpendicular to the mirror’s surface. The term “Normal line” refers to this line. The incident angle and reflected angle are split into two equal angles by the normal line. It is a fictitious line. The angle of incidence and angle of reflection are terms used to describe the angle between an incident ray and the normal and the angle between a reflected ray and the normal, respectively. To understand what occurs when the angle of incidence, angle of reflection, and angle of refraction vary, a normal is drawn.

3. What is the relation between Focal Length and Magnification?

Ans: Magnification decreases as focal length increases, and thus the mirror magnification is inversely related to the focal length of the mirror. 

Since, the mirror formula can be expressed as,

                                                                     1⁄f = 1⁄u + 1⁄v

And the formula for the magnification of the mirror is,

                                                                   m = –v ⁄ u

Thus, by combining the above two equations, we can get,

                                                                     m = –f ⁄ f-u

Therefore, mirror magnification decreases with increasing focal length, while mirror magnification increases with decreasing focal length. The relationship between the mirror’s magnification and focal length is shown above.

Introduction

To measure the focal length, the distance of the object or image from the mirror, and the mirror’s magnification when studying the reflection of light by spherical mirrors and the generation of pictures by spherical mirrors, several sign conventions must be learned. A spherical mirror‘s pole, sometimes referred to as the origin or origin point, serves as the source of all signals. This sign convention is known as the New Cartesian Sign Convention.

Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirrors

The sign convention for the mirror was developed with the notion that items are always placed on the left side of the mirror, causing incident light to pass from left to right. For spherical mirrors, the following sign convention applies:

• From the pole, every measurement is taken.
• When measured in the direction of the incoming light, distances are thought of as positive; but, when measured in the opposite direction, they are thought of as negative.
• Upward values are positive and descending values are negative when measuring distances perpendicular to the main axis.

Sign Convention Diagram

Sign Convention for Concave and Convex Mirror

Concave Mirror Sign Convention

• The distance of the object seems to be negative since it is always in front of the mirror.
• The concave mirror’s focal length and radius of curvature are both viewed as negative since the focus and centre of curvature are in front of the concave mirror.
• The distance is determined as – (negative) when the image forms in front of the mirror and as + (positive) when it does so behind the mirror (positive).
• When an image is upright, height is positive; when it is inverted, height is perceived negatively.

Convex Mirror Sign Convention

• The object distance is displayed as negative since the object is always in front of the mirror.
• The radius of curvature and focal length are viewed as + (positive) in the case of a convex mirror since the centre of curvature and focus is located behind the convex mirror.
• Since convex mirrors always form an image behind a mirror, the image’s distance is considered to be positive.
• Since an upright image always forms when using a convex mirror, the image’s height is seen as positive.

Mirror Formula

The distance between an object’s main axis point and the mirror’s pole is referred to as the object distance and is presented by u. The image distance is the distance between a spherical mirror‘s pole and the location of an item on its primary axis and marked with v. Therefore, the formula for the focal length (f) in a spherical mirror can be expressed as                                                                                                                                                                                                      1⁄f = 1⁄u + 1⁄v

Summary

To understand the relationship between the object distance, its image distance, and focal length, the Sign convention is a crucial component of this topic. Additionally, due to the Cartesian system we utilise in the unique mirror sign convention, all mirrors have distinct signs for many variables. We put up a relationship between them using the mirror formula to gain a clearer image, and we can utilise this relationship to solve our numerical difficulties.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. Is the Object Distance Positive or Negative in the Concave Mirror?

Ans: A concave or convex mirror’s object distance is always negative because objects are always positioned on the left side of the mirror, and a spherical mirror’s sign convention dictates that distances to the left of the mirror are always negative. When an image forms on a concave mirror, the image distance v will be negative if it does so on the left side and positive if it does so on the right.

2. What is a Virtual Image?

Ans: Anything that is placed in front of a mirror produces an image. The image is a real image if the object’s light rays strike the mirror, reflect off of it, and then coalesce to form the image. If the image must be produced by extrapolating the reflected light beams backwards rather than converging, it is referred to as a virtual image. Any kind of mirror, whether concave, convex, or planar, may create a virtual picture. These pictures are displayed on the lens or the mirror.

3. What is the Sign Convention we use in the Concave Mirror?

Ans: The object’s symbol is interpreted negatively since it is constantly placed in front of the mirror. The focal length and radius of curvature have negative signs because the concave mirror‘s centre of curvature and focus are in front of it. An image’s height is seen positively while it is upright and negatively when it is inverted. When an image forms in front of the mirror, the distance is estimated as – (negative), and when it forms behind the mirror, the distance is calculated as + (positive) (positive).

Introduction

The ability to work emanates with energy. For any action, we require energy in the form of mechanical, chemical, electrical, static, kinetic, muscular, and other forms. Understanding the several energy sources is necessary for utilising all forms of energy, which can be obtained from various sources, including both natural and artificial ones. Interestingly, natural energy sources include the sun, wind, tidal, geothermal, and gravitational energies, while artificial energy sources include biomass, coal, petroleum, and a host of others. To ensure that the energy resources survive for a long time, it is crucial to save and use them as effectively as possible. Although not all energy sources release dangerous gases, their use can occasionally lead to pollution. Moreover, energy comes in two forms: traditional and unconventional sources.

Conventional Sources of Energy

Conventional energy sources are non-renewable, which implies that after they have been utilised, they cannot be reused. Coal, oil, natural gas, fuel wood, and nuclear energy are a few examples of traditional/conventional sources of energy. Coal, natural gas, and petroleum account for 90% of the commercial energy produced worldwide, while nuclear power accounts only for 10%.

Types of Conventional Sources of Energy

a. Coal

• Coal, a sedimentary rock in the black-brown range, is the most prevalent conventional energy source and has a long lifespan of 200 years. Long-term exposure to heat and pressure transforms dead plants into lignite and anthracite, which are then finally transformed into coal.
• There are several applications for coal, such as fuel for steam engines in trains and the production of electricity.
• About 70% of the total energy used in our nation is generated by coal.

b. Oil

• Due to the variety of uses for oil, it is one of the most significant conventional energy sources.
• The oil extraction procedure, which entails several processes, is used to obtain the oil.
• Oil is utilised commercially and in a variety of sectors, including the food, cosmetic, and transportation industries.

c. Petroleum and Natural Gas

• Petroleum is made up of Alkanes and cycloalkanes.
• Methane, ethane, propane, butane, and hydrogen sulphide are all components of natural gas.
• Natural gas is created when gas comes into contact with the petroleum layer and is a black liquid when it is in its raw state.
• Petroleum is used to make things like plastic, petrol, and diesel.
• Compared to other fuels, natural gas produces less air pollution.

d. Nuclear Energy

• Nuclear materials that contain radioactive elements are used to create energy.
• 300 or more nuclear reactions are required for the production of nuclear energy.
• Some negative effects of nuclear energy include its radioactivity and danger.
• From one location to another, it is simple to travel by rail or ship. For instance, coal, oil, and natural gas are raw materials.

Advantages of Conventional Sources of Energy

• For any energy, the installation of conventional plants is simple.
• There is no need to wait for energy to be generated because it may be produced quickly depending on the needs.
• Alternative forms of energy are readily accessible and renewable resources that may be utilised again.
• Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, biomass, and solar energy are a few examples of non-conventional sources.

Non-conventional Sources of Energy 

• Alternative forms of energy are readily accessible and renewable resources that may be utilised again.
• Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, biomass, and solar energy are a few examples of non-conventional sources.

Solar Energy

• In solar power plants, sunlight is transformed into electrical energy to produce solar energy.
• Although solar energy is the most significant non-conventional energy source, it is also the least consumed.
• Solar energy comes from renewable resources, is widely accessible, and is non-polluting. 
• Solar ovens, solar panels, solar heaters, and solar cells are a few examples.

Wind Energy

• Turbines are used to generate electricity from wind as a source of energy.
• The power output rises along with the wind speed.
• These wind turbines are situated where the wind speed is strongest and at its highest altitude.
• Wind energy is positioned close to agricultural regions and is pollution-free.

Biomass Energy

• Wood, sewage, plants, animals, and other organic materials are used to create biomass.
• Burning this material releases heat energy, which is then transformed into electrical energy.
• Cooking, lighting, and the production of power are among the uses of biomass.
• A total of 14% of the world’s energy comes from biomass.

Tidal Energy

• Tidal energy is produced by turning the mechanical energy of tides into electricity.
• This energy source can be used in areas that are close to oceans and seas.

Advantages of Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

• These resources are very less expensive and renewable.
• Non-conventional sources are environmentally friendly.
• These resources require low maintenance.
• Offer long-term use as compared to conventional sources.

A comparison between the Conventional and Non-Conventional Sources of Energy.

Conventional Source of Energy	Non-Conventional Source of Energy
Conventional sources of Energy is being used for a longer period.	Non-conventional energy sources have lately been created and are environmentally beneficial.
Conventional resources are a prominent cause of environmental pollution due to the emission of gases and smoke.	Since non-conventional energy is derived from renewable
Non-renewable sources of energy.	Renewable sources of energy.
Examples – Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas, oil, and Nuclear Energy.	Examples-Wind Energy, Solar Energy, Tidal Energy, Hydropower Energy, and Thermal Energy.

Summary

Conventional sources of energy emit greenhouse gases while producing power and are limited, therefore then-conventional energy sources, which are renewable and environmentally favourable are suitable for sustainability. The major conventional energy sources are coal, oil, petroleum, natural gases, etc. while the non-conventional sources include solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, biomass energy, etc.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Why should we Conserve Energy?

Ans: Energy conservation is a measure used to protect and preserve energy sources from becoming extinct. We must save our energy supplies for later use. Utilisation must be reduced to conserve. Our needs are growing daily, yet we only have a limited amount of energy resources. 

2. What is a Renewable Source of Energy?

Ans. Renewable energy comes from naturally occurring, regenerative sources. Renewable energy sources include wind, solar, biomass, thermal, etc. Renewable energy can be continuously replenished without running out.

About 16% of the world’s energy consumption is made up of renewable sources. Renewable energy is a plentiful and sustainable source of power. Sunlight is the most significant and widely available renewable energy source.

3. What are the Advantages of Non-Conventional Sources of Energy over Conventional Sources of Energy?

Ans. The natural limitations of conventional energy sources, which emerged after millions of years and are subject to extinction at any time, make them very vulnerable. The abundance of non-traditional energy sources in nature makes them increasingly significant and practical. Additionally, non-traditional sources of energy are environmentally beneficial and don’t damage or contaminate the environment. The cost of fuel generated from unconventional energy sources is lower than that of traditional energy sources.

Introduction

Every day, new technological components are developed as technology advances throughout the globe. Electricity powers every other home, public space, and industry. People utilise electricity, and they use it for a variety of things. But how is it that this electric current has a particular level of power and continues to flow without any breaks? It is done with the aid of an object known as a conductor. Electric current may readily flow via the conductor. A conductor is built into anything that uses electricity to operate. These currents produce forces that flow in one direction. Let’s discover more about it.

Current Carrying Conductor 

A conductor that is transporting current can withstand the current’s force. Each current has a specific voltage that defines the electrical power. Electric bulbs can burst at high voltage, whereas low voltage results in weak electric current. There is no electric field surrounding the conductors. Unless a charge or electric field is given to it, it is neutral. The conductor’s sole responsibility is to transmit the current uninterruptedly to each source.

Magnetic Field due to Current Carrying Conductor.

A conductor that is conducting current generates a magnetic field everywhere around it. A current, as we all know, is a net charge that moves across a medium. The presence of moving charges in a conductor is a prerequisite for the creation of magnetic fields. Due to the magnetic fields‘ extra charge, an electric field is created. All of these elements help the current flow through a conductor smoothly.

Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

A conductor experiences forces because of the external magnetic field. When two magnetic fields interact, there will be attraction and repulsion (according to their properties) based on the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of the current. That’s how a conductor experiences force. This phenomenon is termed Magnetic Lorentz force. This was found by H. A. Lorentz. This force is perpendicular to the direction of the charge and also to the direction of the magnetic field. It is a vector combination of the two forces.

The equation of the force on a conductor having a charge q and moving through a magnetic field strength of B is given as,

F = qvBsinθ

This equation can also be written as,

Where L is the length of the wire and t is the time. Rearranging the above equation, we get,

The Direction of a Force in a Magnetic Field

It is believed that the force acts perpendicular to the current’s direction. The left-hand rule is used to accomplish this. John Ambrose Fleming established this regulation. It is important to remember that the magnetic force is orthogonal to both the direction of motion and the charge velocity. Understanding which direction is applied to it is made easier by the left-hand rule.

State The Rule to Determine the Force or Direction

The direction of force, as we have seen in the article above, is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the direction of the current. And the Right-hand rule-I decides this. The best mnemonic to remember the direction of force and current flow through the right hand is this example. The details are as follows:

• Place a hand between the magnetic field.
• The direction of the thumb points to the direction of the current (I).
• The fingers are facing the direction of the magnetic field (B).
• Now, the palm is facing the direction of the force (F).

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule Definition

The current-carrying conductor will feel a force that is perpendicular to both the direction of the current and the magnetic field if it is put in the external magnetic field, according to a rule developed by John Ambrose Fleming. According to Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule, the thumb points in the direction of magnetic force, the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field, and the middle finger points in the direction of current if our forefinger, middle finger, and thumb are positioned perpendicular to one another. The late 19th century saw the development of this regulation.

Summary

Conductors have moving charges that are required for the magnetic field. Force moves in a perpendicular direction to the magnetic field and electric current. The magnetic field also exerts equal and opposite force in the current-carrying conductor.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is an Insulator?

Ans: We are aware that conductors enable uninterrupted electric current flow through them. However, it may also be prevented from flowing. Insulators carry out the work. Insulators are regarded as poor conductors of electricity because they do not permit electrons or atoms of materials to travel through them. Additionally, insulators have high resistance. Insulators still have some electric charge even if they prevent current passage. As a result, its primary use is high voltage resistance. Some examples are non-metals.

2. What are some High-Conduction Metals?

Ans: Metals that conduct heat and electricity in a very efficient way are called high-conduction metals, such that of gold, silver, and copper. In these materials copper is for construction purposes, making wires, cables, motors etc. because it’s cheaper than gold and silver. However, gold is used at very specific places due to its cost, and it is robust to environmental hazards like sulphur, oxygen, and water, whereas silver and copper react with environmental hazards.

3. What is a Semiconductor?

Ans: Semiconductors are materials that combine conductivity and insulator properties. Due to their capacity to both deliver and resist current flow, semiconductors are primarily employed in the production of electronic products and equipment. Doping the impurities into the crystal’s structure can change them. Silicon and gallium arsenide are two common semiconductors.

Introduction

H.C. Oersted discovered the magnetic effect surrounding the current-carrying conductor in the 19th century. The region around a magnet or current-carrying conductor where another object feels a magnetic force caused by the magnet or current-carrying body is known as the magnetic field. A current-carrying conductor creates a magnetic field all around it homogeneously due to the flow of current-carrying electrons, which generates a magnetic field, and its magnitude is proportional to the current in the conductor. Therefore, the distance from the current-carrying conductor and the total current in the wire control the magnetic force felt by any object near the current-carrying conductor.

What is a Magnetic Field?

An invisible field called a magnetic field surrounds a magnet or a magnetic substance. The magnetic force operates in this field. Other magnetic objects can be drawn into or pushed away from this field by this magnetic force. A magnetic field develops when electrons move in a certain direction having a negative charge. A magnetic field can be represented by drawing magnetic field lines that are continuous lines originating from the north pole of the magnet and migrating towards the south forming continuous loops. Inside a magnet, this orientation is the opposite.

Magnetic Field due to Current Carrying Conductor

We are aware that stationary charges generate an electric field whose strength is proportional to the charge. The same theory may be used in this situation. Moving charges generate a magnetic field proportional to the strength of the current, which causes the conductor carrying the current to generate a magnetic field everywhere around it. Electrons are responsible for producing this magnetic field. Due to its magnitude and direction, the magnetic field can be considered a vector quantity. The magnetic field’s direction is parallel to the wire’s length. It may be provided using the right-hand thumb rule. According to this rule, if we grasp the conductor carrying the current in our right hand and point our thumb in the direction of the current, our curled fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field lines. This is seen in the diagram below.

Magnetic Field due to a Current-Carrying Wire

Consider a current carrying wire having a current I, then the magnetic field strength B, at a distance r from the wire can be estimated using the formula such that, 

The direction of the produced magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire is estimated with the help of the right-hand thumb rule, as shown in the below figure.

Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire

The equation of the force on a conductor having a charge q and moving through a magnetic field strength of B is given as,

F = qvBsinθ

This equation can also be written as,

F =

Where L is the length of the wire and t is the time. Rearranging the above equation, we get,

Relation between the Current and Magnetic Field 

The relation between current and magnetic field is given by Biot Savart’s Law, such that,

Summary

A magnetic field can be created when electrons moving in a certain direction have a negative charge. An invisible field called a magnetic field surrounds a magnet or a magnetic substance. The magnetic force operates in this field. The relationship between the magnetic field and current strength is direct.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What is the law of Biot Savart?

Ans: By this law, the magnetic field generated due to a small current-carrying element depends upon the square of the distance between the point and the current-carrying element, the magnitude of the current, the length of the current element, and the sine of the angle formed by the current’s direction and the line connecting it. This law is comparable to Coulomb’s law in electrostatics. The vector quantity is represented by this element.

2. What is the Right-Hand Rule of Fleming?

Ans: When our thumb, index finger, and middle finger are arranged so that they are all perpendicular to one another, this law states that the thumb indicates the direction of the conductor’s motion, the middle finger gives the direction of the current induced, and the index finger gives the direction of the magnetic field. Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule determines the direction of the current that develops when a conductor moves through a magnetic field. This principle is utilised in electrical generators.

3. How Current Produces a Magnetic Field?

Ans: Ampere recognized that whenever an electrical charge is moving, a magnetic field is created. Similar to how an electrical current passing through a wire creates a magnetic field, the spinning, and circling of an atom’s nucleus accomplish the same. The magnetic field’s orientation is determined by the spin and orbit directions.

Introduction

Electrons encounter resistance when they go through a conductor because of the molecules’ attraction forces. The nature of the material determines how much of this resistance is provided. The resistance of the material determines how much electricity flows as a result of voltage differences. Ohm’s law relates electric current (I), voltage (V), and resistance such that,

V = IR

Electrical resistors are devices that provide resistance to an electric circuit. The zigzag symbol in an electrical circuit diagram stands in for a resistor.

System of Resistors

Systems of resistors can be arranged in series or parallel.

1. Resistors in Series Arrangement:

The resistors are arranged in this configuration along the current’s path, one after the other (end to end). As the current passes through the first resistor, its output current enters the second resistor as an input, and the second resistor’s output is then transferred to the third. The equivalent resistor, whose total equivalent resistance is simply the sum of the individual resistance of all the resistors linked in series, may replace all the resistors in a circuit. The equivalent resistor’s formula is:

Each resistor in a series circuit receives the same amount of current, and the voltage across each resistor varies proportionally to its resistance.

The total voltage of the circuit is equal to the sum of the voltage across each resistor when the total current, I, in the circuit is multiplied by both sides of the equation.

2. Resistors in Parallel Arrangement:

All the parallel resistors in this configuration share an input lead and an output lead, i.e., they are connected across each other. Each resistor in a parallel combination has the same voltage across it, which is the same as the circuit’s overall voltage. At a junction, the electric current is split based on the resistance of each resistor. At the output junction, the whole output current is combined once more and flows through the circuit.

Equivalent resistance in parallel is given as follows:

Since the total voltage on each side of the equation is the same, the voltage across each resistor is also the same. We can see that the circuit’s total current, I, equals the sum of the currents flowing through all the resistors.

Summary

Small electrical components known as resistors provide resistance to the passage of electricity in an electric circuit. A circuit can link many resistors in series or parallel configurations. If many resistors are replaced with a single resistor that has the same resistance as the combination, the equivalent resistance of that resistance is the same as the resistance of the series and parallel combination of resistors. The combination formula for series resistors is, Req.=R1 + R2 + R3 +…, and for the parallel combination 1R = 1R1 + 1R2 + 1R3 +…

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the Factors on which the Resistance of an Object Depends?

Ans: An object’s electrical resistance is determined by the characteristics of its material and form. The formula takes into consideration these elements:
R= ρ (l/A)
Where A is the cross-sectional area of the material, Rho is its resistivity, and l is the length of the material through which electricity is flowing.

2. What is Electrical Conductivity?

Ans: The inherent capacity of a substance to carry electricity is known as electrical conductivity. It shows how readily electricity can go through the substance. The symbol for conductivity is (sigma), which is just the reciprocal of resistance such that: σ = 1/ ρ
Conductivity equals. Like resistivity, which is a broad attribute of a material that depends on its size. Air is a superb insulator with very low conductivity, whereas metals are typically good conductors with high conductivity and low resistance. Even at temperatures close to absolute zero, superconductors exhibit conductivity.

3. What is the SI unit of Resistivity and Conductivity?

Ans: The most used system of measuring in contemporary times is the SI unit or the International System of Units. The globe uses this contemporary metric system, which is utilised in all languages.
The SI unit of resistivity- ohm metre (Ω.m).
The base SI unit of resistivity- kg.m³.s−³.A-².
The SI unit of conductivity- siemens per metre (S/m).
The base SI unit of conductivity- kg-¹.m-³.s³.A².

Introduction

Atoms, which give all other matter in the universe its mass, volume, and resilience to survive changes in its physical state, are responsible for the matter’s mass and volume. Each type of matter, molecule, element, or even chemical, has a unique set of features that aid in understanding how that matter is used in everyday life. While the primary characteristics of matter are pressure, density, and volume, the primary characteristics of chemicals are toxicity, chemical stability, and the strength of their covalent bonds. As a result, there are many things to learn about the characteristics of each element and chemical complex.

What are Physical Properties?

As is common knowledge, every element and form of matter has unique characteristics. Physical property is any attribute that can be measured and that also describes an object’s physical condition. A physical state can change through time, which is referred to as a physical state shift. Physical characteristics can also be seen. Meaning that any changes in the physical stuff are readily seen. Without affecting the substance’s identity, these qualities may be identified. Contrarily, this is not true of chemical attributes because the substance changes as a result of identification.

Example of Physical Properties

Recognition and measuring the properties of matter depend upon certain aspects, even though it does not need to undergo any changes in its identity. For instance, if it involves measuring the amount or substance then it is extensive physical property (by appearance)

• Volume
• Mass
• Length
• Shape

If it is not dependent on the amount of substance, then it is intensive physical property (by observing its physical state in extreme temperature)

• Melting point
• Colour
• Boiling point
• Density

Measurement of Physical Properties

For scientific study, measurements of physical attributes are required. Quantitative measures, as the name implies, are used to carry out the task and based on the physical properties (either extensive or intensive), a measurement is made. The SI units are used to express the measurements. The various physical quantities, together with their corresponding symbols and SI units, are displayed in the table below.

Physical quantity	Symbols	Name of the SI unit	The Symbol for the SI unit
Length	l	metre	m
Mass	m	Kilogram	kg
Time	t	Second	s
Electric current	l	Ampere	A
Thermodynamic temperature	T	Kelvin	K
Amount of substance	n	Mole	mol
Luminous intensity	lv	Candela	cd

Physical Properties of Elements

The physical properties of materials are determined by performing intensive material characterizations. We already know that two or more molecules may be combined to form an element. As a result, knowing its qualities based on the number of atoms it contains is simpler. We may learn about a substance’s density, electrical stability, and capacity to tolerate intense heat to determine its melting and boiling points. Understanding the characteristics of the elements is essential since it is beneficial in many ways. We can determine which elements share a particular attribute and which do not. Iron and copper, for instance, have similar characteristics but distinct ones. i.e., they can both conduct electricity. They cannot, however, be exposed to damp air.

Physical Properties of Materials

We have understood the properties of elements, but what about materials? Materials are nothing more than things like metals, ceramics, and polymers. Their differing densities and thermal characteristics set them apart from one another. Among a material’s characteristics are,

• Thermal conductivity
• Resistivity
• Density
• Melting point
• Corrosion resistance

Three Physical Properties of Water

Even water, which is measured in litres, has physical characteristics. Other than being placed in the container to acquire their form and volume retention, they experience no physical changes. Water has distinct physical characteristics:

• Temperature
• Colour 
• Turbidity
• Taste
• Odour

Summary

Physical characteristics are observable, which means we can see them with our naked eyes. In contrast to chemical attributes, physical properties do not experience any changes to their physical state. There are two ways to observe physical qualities. Both extensive and intensive physical properties.

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. What is a Physical Change?

Ans: Except for one or more physical features, a substance’s chemical properties remain unchanged. We refer to this as a bodily transformation. In other words, a substance is capable of taking on any shape, size, or structural modifications. Physical changes also include state changes, such as going from a solid to a liquid or from a liquid to a gas. Cutting, bending, melting, freezing, boiling, and dissolving are a few of the processes that result in physical changes.

2. What are the Chemical Properties of Matter?

Ans: Chemical characteristics are the measurements or observations of a chemical substance. Chemicals contain certain characteristics that can only be identified when the substance transforms into another sort of substance. For research objectives, chemical characteristics are very useful in differentiating molecules. Reactivity, flammability, and corrosion are a few of the characteristics. Reactivity is defined as the capacity to interact with other chemical compounds. Flames and chemicals react rapidly. Thus, the flame characteristic of many chemicals may be identified.

3. How do bonds Affect Physical Properties?

Ans: Chemical bonds are the electrical forces that hold ions and atoms together during the formation of molecules. These chemical bonds are responsible for the physical properties of matter like hardness, structure, melting, and boiling points. They also influence other properties such as crystal symmetry and cleavage etc. It is more difficult to break apart bonds that are stronger than they are. Hardness, higher melting and boiling points, and less chance of expansion are all caused by stronger chemical bonds.

Introduction

The rate of change in displacement of a moving object is referred to as its velocity. As a result, velocity is a vector quantity, and the velocity-time graph or velocity-time relation is a graphical representation of its fluctuation with time. A velocity-time graph shows the variation of the object’s velocity with time, under different conditions, such as under uniform motion, and under acceleration. On a velocity-time graph, acceleration is depicted by the slope of the graph line.

Velocity-Time Graph for Uniform Motion (No acceleration)

Since there is no acceleration being given to the moving object in this scenario, its velocity is constant and does not fluctuate over time. As a result, in this scenario, it is clear from Figure (a) below that despite the change in time, the velocity will remain constant throughout the entire journey of the object.

Velocity-Time Graph with a Constant Uniform Acceleration

In this situation, the item is subject to a constant uniform acceleration, so depending on the applied uniform acceleration—referred to as the accelerating and retarding acceleration, respectively—its velocity will constantly grow or decrease. We see a linear behaviour of the object’s velocity with time in the velocity-time graph (as shown below in Figure (b)), where the velocity of the item grows linearly on the application of constant uniform acceleration. You can use the slope of this graph to calculate the object’s applied acceleration.

The object’s equations of motion under a uniform constant acceleration can be expressed as follows:

v = u + at

s = ut + 1/2 at²

v² = u² + 2as

Where v, u, a, s, and t are the final velocity, initial velocity, uniform acceleration, total displacement of the object, and travel/trip time, respectively.

Velocity-Time Graph under a Variable Acceleration

As shown in Figure (c) above, in this situation, the acceleration acting on the object varies with time and as a result, the object’s variation in velocity is different during each time period of the journey. As a result, we observe a velocity-time graph that differs from the case where the object is subjected to variable acceleration and observe a parabolic behaviour of velocity with time.

Summary

The rate of change of displacement is known as velocity. The slope of the curves on the velocity-time graphs indicates how quickly the item is accelerating. Any object’s velocity is determined by the rate at which its displacement changes, so its starting and ending positions are crucial.

Frequently Asked Questions

1.What is the Initial and Final Velocity?

Ans: An object’s initial velocity is its speed at time zero, or when it first begins moving, and its final velocity is its speed when the journey has come to an end.

2. State the difference and Similarity between Speed and Velocity.

Ans: The pace at which a distance changes is known as an object’s speed, whereas the rate at which its displacement changes is known as its velocity. Speed and velocity are scalars and vector quantities because distance and displacement are, respectively, scalar and vector quantities. Since both distance and displacement are expressed in meters, there is an m/s correspondence between speed and velocity.

3. What are the differences between Velocity and Acceleration?

Attributes	Velocity	Acceleration
Definition	The speed of an object in a given direction.	Acceleration implies any change in the velocity of the object with respect to time.
Calculated with	Displacement.	Velocity
What is it?	Rate of change of displacement.	Rate of change of velocity.
Formula	Displacement/Time	Velocity/Time
Unit of Measurement	Meter/Second	Meter/second²

4. What do Velocity Time Graphs Show?

Ans: A velocity-time graph displays the sprinter’s object’s changing speed, as well as the speed of any other moving item or person. The slope of the graph line on a velocity-time graph is used to illustrate acceleration. If the line slopes downhill, as it does between 7 and 10 seconds, then acceleration is negative, and velocity is dropping.