Category: Chemistry

Introduction

Limestones are a natural source of calcium sulphate. Calcium sulphate is an inorganic compound consisting of  \(CaS{O_4}\) and similar hydrates. In the form of anhydrite, it is currently commonly used as a desiccant.

Plaster of Paris is a specific hydrate, and the existence of all the others is attributable to the presence of the mineral gypsum. All of them look like insoluble white particles in water.

It is estimated that the world produces about 127 million metric tonnes of natural gypsum each year. Ca is a metal, but several of its compounds also play essential roles in various sectors and are therefore manufactured on a massive scale.

What is Calcium Sulphate?

Calcium sulphate as well as its hydrates are calcium salts. It appears as white particles that are far less soluble in water. The 2 most frequent hydrates include plaster of Paris as well as gypsum. Plaster of Paris seems to be a calcium sulphate hemihydrate produced if gypsum has been heated to 393 K. Whenever heated above 393 K, it produces anhydrite, sometimes termed as “dead burnt plaster,” that reverts to gypsum while added to water. Calcium sulphate is indeed an anti-caking agent, dough developer and strengthener, flour handling agent, pH controller, thickener, as well as yeast food. It has become a fine, odourless and white-yellow powder. It is required in the building sector to make artificial ceilings, plasters, as well as in various other materials.

Structure of Calcium Sulphate

\(CaS{O_4}\) is composed of 1 atom of Ca, 1 atom of S , as well as 4 atoms of O. It is an ionic molecule consisting of 1 calcium cation as well as 1 sulphate anion. The Ca ion has a valency of +2, whereas the sulphate polyatomic ion has a valency of -2. As a byproduct, whenever they interact, the neutral compound \(CaS{O_4}\) is formed.

Hydrous and Anhydrous Forms of Calcium Sulphate

Plaster of Paris and Gypsum

Both gypsum and plaster of Paris appear to be hydrated forms of  \(CaS{O_4}\). These two hydrated forms of calcium sulphate are well-known due to their numerous applications in various fields, including medicine and building. Plaster of Paris looks like a white powder that contains gypsum once it’s been hydrated fromCaSO4 salt. C

alcium sulphate hemihydrate is the technical name for them (\(CaS{O_4}.12{H_2}O\)). It’s being used much like a plaster cast to keep shattered bones in place while they heal. Gypsum is heated to 373 K, where it transforms into the compound. Chemically speaking, gypsum would be recognised as calcium sulphate dihydrate. \(CaS{O_4}.2{H_2}O\) must be its molecular formula.

It can be used to cover walls, ceilings, and even decorative pieces for protection and aesthetic purposes. It is impossible to form it into different forms. Once water is added to the plaster of Paris, it becomes gypsum and hardens.

Gypsum Formula

Uses of Calcium Sulphate

• It is most useful in making Plaster of Paris. Because it can be easily transformed into a paste by mixing it with water,  \(CaS{O_4}\) powder is particularly useful in this regard.
• It’s a high-quality calcium source.
• It finds widespread use in the building trades and mortar production.
• It is used in instruments for surgery, castings, moulds, and models.
• It can be found in soil conditioners and fertilisers.
• As with alabaster, it can be carved into works of art
• It is being put to use in a process meant to boost the hardness of brewing water.
• It’s used in the production of Portland cement.
• Cosmetics like foot lotions and shampoos include it.
• The dental industry is the primary user.
• Lead and arsenic, both of which contribute to water pollution, can be removed by using calcium sulphate. 
• Bread would get its calcium from calcium sulphate, which would also be used to fortify wheat.

Summary

An inorganic form of calcium, calcium sulphate occurs widely in the environment. It is possible to find hydrates of calcium sulphate in the wild.  \(CaS{O_4}\) is an inorganic calcium molecule with this chemical formula. Its primary ingredients are the well-known hydrates, Plaster of Paris and gypsum. Water does not dissolve this fine, odourless, white-yellow powder.  \(CaS{O_4}\) is used to strengthen flour due to its high calcium concentration. It has many applications in industrial production.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is Portland cement?

Portland cement is a binding material that comes in the form of a finely crushed powder, usually grey in colour, and is created by burning and grinding a mixture of limestone and clay or limestone and shale.

2. Is calcium sulphate mined or manufactured?

Commercial calcium sulphate is obtained from naturally occurring gypsum that is extracted or mined.

3. What property of calcium sulphate makes it a good food preservative?

Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate acts as a natural antioxidant, extending the expiry life of food as well as drinks.

Introduction

The discovery of calcium phosphate in bone tissue for the first time in 1769 marks the beginning of calcium phosphate’s usage in medicine. Calcium phosphates have played a key role in the field of bone tissue engineering. Calcium phosphate, the calcium salt of phosphoric acid, has several applications. Calcium phosphate inhibits the ability of the GI tract to absorb radium and strontium after oral consumption.

Phosphate is essential to the kidneys’ capacity to eliminate hydrogen ions, alters calcium concentrations, buffers acid-base equilibrium, and modifies calcium concentrations. Calcium phosphate’s phosphate ions likely react with hydrochloric acid in the stomach to neutralise the pH.  Calcium phosphate is a source of calcium and phosphate ions that promote bone homeostasis and dental remineralization, respectively, in toothpaste and systemic circulation.

What is Calcium Phosphate?

Calcium ions \(\left( {C{a^{2 + }}} \right)\) and inorganic phosphate anions constitute the calcium phosphate category of chemicals and minerals. Some “calcium phosphates” contain oxide and hydroxide as well. Calcium phosphates, which are white solids of nutritional value, are present in a range of living organisms, including bone minerals and dental enamel.

\(C{a_3}{P_2}{O_8}\)  is the chemical formula for calcium phosphate. It exists in milk as colloidal calcium phosphate, which consists of micelles bound to casein protein with magnesium, zinc, and citrate. Phosphoric acid and fertilisers are produced using several calcium phosphate minerals. Some calcium phosphates, when used in excess, can result in nutrient-rich surface runoff, which can cause eutrophication and algal blooms in receiving waters. It is soluble in hydrochloric acid and diluted nitric acid, but not in acetic acid or ethanol. Additionally, it is found in milk, bones, teeth, and coffee grounds, and it dissolves very slowly in water.

Characteristics of Calcium Phosphate

• Calcium phosphates are essential to geology, biology, medicine, dentistry, and industry.
• The solid rock known as apatite produces tribasic calcium phosphate, which is a complex and impure form of calcium phosphate.
• Calcium phosphate is a component of the mineral apatite, which is composed of phosphorite and other compounds.
• Its composition, solubility, stability, and structure influence its applications, formation, and processes of formation.

Calcium Phosphate Preparation

It can also be created by mixing solid calcium hydroxide with phosphoric acid. The following are examples of the chemical equation:

\[3Ca{{\left( OH \right)}_{2}}+2{{H}_{3}}P{{O}_{4}}\to C{{a}_{3}}{{\left( P{{O}_{4}} \right)}_{2}}+6{{H}_{2}}O\]

When calcium phosphate reacts with an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide, dibasic calcium phosphate is produced. Contrarily, the excess phosphoric acid can be added to either a dibasic or a tribasic calcium phosphate solution and allowed to evaporate to produce monobasic calcium phosphate.

Structure of \(C{a_3}{\left( {P{O_4}} \right)_2}\)

Calcium phosphate is an ionic crystal made up of 3 calcium ions and 2 phosphate ions. 

Properties of Calcium Phosphate- \(C{a_3}{\left( {P{O_4}} \right)_2}\)

The general properties of calcium phosphate are given below.

Solubility of Calcium Phosphate- \(C{a_3}{\left( {P{O_4}} \right)_2}\)

Calcium phosphate is insoluble in water but soluble in acids. The solubility of calcium phosphate has profound effects on the biological processes of resorption, the development of hard tissues, and pathological calcification.

Occurrence of Calcium Phosphate

Calcium phosphates can be found in nature in a variety of locations, and they are the primary minerals used to manufacture phosphate fertiliser and other phosphorus compounds.

Calcium and phosphorus supply the bulk of an animal’s mineral requirements. That’s why \(C{a_3}{\left( {P{O_4}} \right)_2}\)  is such a popular and widely used supplement for animals. Furthermore, the rock phosphate dissolving tests prefer Dicalcium Phosphate Dihydrate because it is the most soluble of the hardly soluble calcium phosphate crystals.

Chemical fertilisers that dissolve in water, like diammonium phosphate or triple superphosphate, are the most common means of introducing phosphorus to soil. Given that phosphorus tends to dissolve in solutions at higher concentrations, processes involving precipitation are frequently favoured. 

Health Hazards of Calcium Phosphate

When the amount of toxins ingested is greater than 2 gm/kg, the skin develops a sensitivity that is not seen in other people. If ingested, it could cause chemical pneumonitis. While calcium phosphate nanoparticles in and of themselves pose no danger to cells, their breakdown by lysosomes and subsequent uptake by endosomes can lead to an increase in intracellular calcium concentration. However, cells may eliminate calcium from the cytoplasm within a few hours unless exceptionally large quantities of calcium phosphate are utilised.

The cytotoxicity observed in some cell culture studies, in particular for the unfunctionalized particles, is likely due to the particles’ sedimentation and agglomeration on the cell layer, which results in a very high local particle concentration, subsequent cell death, and high absorption of particles. Calcium phosphate nanoparticles can enter the body through a number of routes, one of which is inhalation. No ill effects have been recorded except for those associated with chronic exposure to large particle doses.

Summary

Calcium phosphate can be found in crystalline or amorphous forms, and both have the same lack of flavour and aroma. However, it does not dissolve in acetic acid or ethanol. Dissolves very slowly in water. You can find it in foods like milk, meat, bones, and ground. Calcium phosphates have numerous uses across many disciplines, including biology, geology, industry, medicine, and dentistry. The composition, lability, stability, and structure of the material all play a role in its manufacture, uses, and applications.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the side effects of taking too much calcium phosphate?

Ans: Symptoms of overdose of calcium phosphate include nausea/vomiting, loss of appetite, mental/mood changes, headache, weakness, tiredness.

2. Is calcium phosphate cement biodegradable?

Ans: Calcium phosphate cement, which comes in powder and liquid form, is a bioactive and biodegradable grafting material that, once mixed, sets as predominantly hydroxyapatite, though it may also contain unreacted particles and other phases.

3. Calcium Phosphate is acidic or basic in nature?

Ans. Calcium phosphate is basic salt, as it is a salt of weak acid (phosphoric acid) and slightly stronger base (calcium hydroxide).

Introduction

CaO is the chemical formula for calcium oxide, which is a chemical compound. “Quicklime” is another name for this substance. In its cubic crystal lattice form, this chemical is extremely stable. As a result, its melting point is high, and it resists heat treatments quite well. Calcium carbonate ores are the primary raw material for this chemical. It can be found in powdered or crystalline form and is an amorphous material. The unadulterated form of this substance is a bluish-grey colour.

What is Calcium Oxide

• Calcium oxide (CaO) is an inorganic chemical that exists as a white crystalline powder.
• Quicklime is a type of lime that can also be used as a substitute for regular lime.
• It’s a lewis base and a metal oxide.
• Calcination of calcium carbonate ores, which eliminates carbon dioxide as a volatile contaminant and creates calcium oxide, is a common method of obtaining this material.
• This white, crystalline powder has the unique property of being able to undergo reversible reactions, making it quite desirable.
• It neutralises the acidity effects and dissolves easily in water. Its widespread industrial application can be attributed to the high temperatures produced when it reacts with water.

Structure of Calcium Oxide

The structure forms an ionic bond between one cation,\(C{a^{2 + }}\), and one anion,\({O^{2 – }}\). It is composed of six electrons in the outermost shell of an oxygen atom and two electrons in the outermost shell of a calcium atom.

Preparation of Calcium Oxide

• The mineral calcite \(CaC{O_3}\) found in limestone and seashells can be thermally decomposed in a lime kiln to produce calcium oxide.

         \[CaC{{\bf{O}}_3}\left( s \right){\rm{ }} \to CaO(s) + C{O_2}\]

• Calcination refers to the process of making burnt lime. The process begins by heating the reactants to decompose them, but the temperature must be kept below their melting points or else the process will fail.
• At temperatures between 1070 and 1270 degrees Celsius, calcium carbonate is transformed by a process called calcination. Typically, a rotary kiln is used to host such processes. Limestone that has been burned and carbon dioxide gas are the reaction’s end products.

Calcium Oxide Properties

• Quicklime readily combines with water to form calcium hydroxide. It is an exothermic process. During hydration, it converts the powder form into a solid compound, calcium hydroxide as follows:  

          \(CaO\left( s \right){\rm{ }} + {H_2}O{\rm{ }} \Leftrightarrow \left( l \right)Ca{\left( {OH} \right)_2}\left( {aq} \right)\)

• Quick lime is a lewis base and neutralises the acidic oxides like \({\bf{A}}{{\bf{l}}_2}{{\bf{O}}_3},{\bf{Si}}{{\bf{O}}_2},{\bf{and}}\;{\bf{F}}{{\bf{e}}_2}{{\bf{O}}_3}.\) The reaction to these compounds produces molten slag which is basic. Therefore, quicklime is basic.
• As calcium oxide is a basic oxide, it combines with an acid to form salt and water. It is called a neutralisation reaction. 

Calcium Oxide Uses

It is widely used in various industries as mentioned below:

• Compressed lime cartridges provide a very high exothermic reaction, which aids  rock breaking in mining industry. 
• CaO is used to separate sodium hydroxide from sodium carbonate during the papermaking process.
• CaO is used to detect the presence of water in a fuel storage tank.
• It’s the primary component in both cement and high-quality steel production.
• It is added to food to improve flavour.
• Caustic soda, flour treatment agents, and acidity regulators all rely on it as a crucial element.
• CaO is used to remove sulphur dioxide from water sources by flue-gas desulfurization, slurry, and solid sprays.
• To dehydrate and precipitate substances, this chemical is employed.
• When dealing with acidic soils, this is the approach to use.

What are the benefits Of calcium in the human body?

Calcium is the main source of Vitamin D. It helps in the formation of strong bones and is beneficial for teeth.  It majorly helps in the proper functioning of the body like the heart, nerves, and muscles.

Interesting Facts about Calcium Oxide

• Calcium oxide gives a bright white light when heated to its melting point, though it has a very high melting point.
• It has a melting point of 2600°C and can handle high thermal temperatures.
• Lime or CaO is used to remove the acidic effect of acidic rainwater.
• Inhalation of calcium oxide irritates the eyes and skin. 
• In the past, it was a myth that calcium oxide speeds up the decomposition of dead animals and humans.  

Summary

CaO, or calcium oxide, has a very high melting point for a chemical substance. Extremely powerful and exothermic reactions occur when calcium oxide is mixed with water. In the process of doing so, calcium hydroxide is formed, which is both corrosive and thermally active (reaching temperatures of 800 °C). Although calcium oxide does not present a fire hazard on its own, when combined with water it generates enough heat to ignite flammable materials.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. How does calcium oxide react with hydrochloric acid?

Ans. It forms a salt calcium chloride along with water when calcium oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid.

\[{\bf{CaO}}{\rm{ }} + {\bf{2HCl}} \Leftrightarrow {\bf{CaC}}{{\bf{l}}_2} + {{\bf{H}}_2}{\bf{O}}\]

2. How is calcium oxide used in water treatment? 

Ans: Calcium oxide is used in water treatment to remove impurities such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide. 

3. Why is calcium oxide more hazardous than calcium hydroxide?

Ans. Calcium oxide is a substance that readily reacts with water to generate calcium hydroxide, whether that water is in the air, on your skin, or somewhere else. When calcium oxide reacts with water, it releases a great deal of heat, making it not only corrosive but also potentially dangerous because of the risk of burns.

Introduction

Evaporation is the transformation of liquid into a gaseous state. The simple process of water evaporating from the soil in response to the sun’s heating influence can help us grasp the concept of evaporation. By contrast, “boiling” refers to bringing a liquid to a temperature above its boiling point. There is a significant difference between evaporation and boiling, with the former affecting only the liquid’s surface and the latter affecting the bulk of the substance.

In most people’s minds, this is the main difference between boiling and evaporation. In contrast to boiling, evaporation occurs naturally and unintentionally. Therefore, we need to distinguish between the two terms to get a proper grasp on them.

The solid-state

Densely packed particles create a solid state. In the solid state, the positions of the particles within a substance are fixed concerning one another due to the lack of thermal energy to break the intermolecular connections between them. It follows that solids are distinguished by their shape and volume. The particles that make up a solid form a crystal when they arrange themselves in a repeating, three-dimensional pattern of positive and negative ions.

The liquid state

If the particles in a substance have enough energy to partially overcome intermolecular interactions, they can move around each other while still being in contact. This is the state of matter known as a liquid phase. Given that the particles in a liquid are still relatively close together, the volume of the liquid is fixed. Since the particles in a liquid can move relatively freely around each other, the liquid can take on the shape of its container.

The gaseous state

The gaseous phases lack a distinct structure and volume. It occupies the entire space of the container. 

What is boiling?

Constant heating causes a liquid to boil and transform into a gas. When the temperature hits boiling, it happens, and bubbles are produced. At this point, a liquid boils and rapidly loses its liquid state.

If you heat a liquid to its boiling point, its particles will start moving more rapidly and agitating. Remember that, unlike evaporation, boiling is usually not a natural occurrence. When the external pressure on a liquid equals the vapour pressure of the gas it’s giving off, we say that the liquid is boiling.

Boiling

What is the boiling point?

The boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid starts boiling. The temperature doesn’t change once the liquid begins to boil until all of the liquid has been transformed into a gas.

What is evaporation?

When a liquid changes into a gas because of high pressure or temperature, this natural process is called evaporation. It does not matter what the temperature is. Even more so, bubbles are not produced during the evaporation process. Evaporation, a natural phenomenon, plays a key role in the water cycle. It can happen at any time, regardless of how hot it becomes. Leave a glass of water out on the table for a while and you’ll see that the water level gradually decreases without any help from you. It’s one of the two ways that things can be vaporised. Atoms or molecules in a liquid state are given enough energy to undergo a phase transition into the gaseous state.

Factors affecting evaporation

1. Temperature: The rate of evaporation depends on the ambient temperature. A liquid changes into a gas in the presence of increasing kinetic energy. Therefore, evaporation occurs at a faster rate.
2. Surface area: How quickly a liquid evaporates is directly proportional to the amount of surface area it is exposed to. A common method for expediting water evaporation from a wet cloth is to stretch it out past the cloth line.
3. The humidity of air: Evaporation is significantly affected by the humidity of the surrounding air. The more time it takes for our clothes to dry after being wet, the more water vapour will be in the air. 
4. Wind speed: The rate of evaporation increases with the strength of the wind. Water evaporates more quickly when there is more wind, which increases the kinetic energy between the water molecules. 

Difference between evaporation and boiling

Summary

In conclusion, evaporation is slower, only occurs from the liquid’s surface, doesn’t result in bubbles, and causes cooling. Boiling is quicker, can happen anywhere in the liquid, results in a lot of bubbles, and does not cause cooling. Evaporation is a typical process that takes place when a liquid transforms into gas while raising the temperature or pressure. Boiling is an unnatural process in which the liquid is continuously heated to a point where it evaporates. The temperature at which a liquid’s vapour pressure equals the surrounding pressure is known as the boiling point. The boiling point falls off as the altitude rises.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Give some illustrations of evaporation.

Evaporation can occur when ice cubes begin to melt, for instance. Another example is the drying of damp surfaces such as floors and clothing. Another example is the evaporation of nail paint remover. Others include iced drinks, clothing ironing, drying damp hair, and more.

2. What distinguishes evaporation from vaporisation?

Molecules may also emerge from below a liquid’s surface during vaporisation. Only the molecules on the liquid’s surface evaporate when a liquid is evaporating. Both vaporisation and evaporation are simply phases of a substance changing from a solid or liquid state to a gaseous state.

3. Which two vaporisation types are there?

Evaporation and boiling are the two different types of vaporisation that exist. Only during the phase transition between the liquid and the gaseous phase can evaporation or a surface event takes place. The molecules or atoms on the surface gain energy from their surroundings, defeat the pull of other molecules and become vaporised.

 

Introduction

Alcohol is a common chemical compound. One or more hydroxyl groups (OH) attached to the carbonyl (C) atom of an alkyl group define an organic compound. Ethanol and methanol are the most prevalent types of alcohol, although there are many others. Different kinds of alcohol have different purposes. Although they share the alcohol family with methanol, ethanol is used for very different purposes.

In order to stay safe, it’s crucial to put in lots of research time before picking an alcoholic beverage. Methanol is an alcohol that is used to produce gasoline and other solvents like antifreeze. On the other hand, ethanol is the main component of all alcoholic beverages. Each type of alcohol has advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost, impact on the environment, and potential health risks.

What is Methanol

The formula for this compound is \({CH_3OH}\). . It’s a dangerous variety of alcohol that shouldn’t be drunk. You can find this substance in gasoline, solvents, and even antifreeze; it goes by a few different names. It is also a key ingredient in the manufacture of chemicals like acetic acid. As a byproduct of their metabolism, it can be found in fruits and vegetables.

Properties of Methanol

1. Methanol has a molecular mass of 32.04 g/mol and a density of 0.792 \(g/c{m^3}\).
2. It is a colourless flammable liquid that is volatile
3. Methanol freezes at a temperature of 93.9 °C (137 °F) and boils at 64.96 °C (148.93 °F).
4. It burns with a dull flame and generates explosive combinations with air.
5. It is fully miscibile with water.
6. Due to the vapours’ slightly heavier-than-air density, they may return to an ignition source after travelling some distance.

Uses of Methanol

1. It is manly use as a raw material for chemical production. 
2. Methylamine production requires its use.
3. It’s also helpful in making acetic acid out of formaldehyde.
4. It’s added to liquids to make them freeze at a lower temperature. 
5. It is used as an engine fuel in high-performance vehicles like sprint cars and even stunt cars when it is in its purest form.
6. It is also used as an HPLC solvent and in other laboratory applications. 
7. In addition to being a fuel and an amphiprotic solvent, it is also a metabolite in humans, mice, Escherichia coli, and Mycoplasma genitalium.

What is Ethanol

It has the chemical formula \({C_2}{H_5}OH\) and is simple alcohol. It is a polar substance. Because of the presence of the OH group, it may also create hydrogen bonds. It’s also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol. It is an important component in beer, wine, and even brandy.

Since ethanol is easily dissolved in water plus other organic substances, it can be found in a variety of different items. This alcohol is a natural outcome of plant fermentation that occurs from ethylene hydration. The sugar fermentation procedure with the zymase enzyme may readily produce ethanol. At low concentrations, it is less hazardous than methanol (\({CH_3OH}\)). However, it is poisonous to the body as well as, in the liver, it turns to acetaldehyde, which is similarly harmful.

Properties of Ethanol

Uses of Ethanol

1. Ethanol is frequently employed as a disinfectant and antiseptic.
2. Ethanol is commonly used as a treatment for ethylene glycol and methyl alcohol poisonings.
3. In many cases, ethanol is used to dissolve drugs that cannot be dissolved in water.
4. Some pain relievers and mouthwashes, for instance, use ethanol (in concentrations ranging from 1% to 25%) as a solvent.
5. Many alcoholic drinks used orally for enjoyment have ethanol as their major constituent.
6. It has the effects of a psychoactive substance, making people feel relaxed and happy.
7. However, it operates as a CNS depressive and reduces mental and physical capabilities.
8. In the manufacturing sector, ethanol is used to make a variety of products, including ethyl esters, acetic acid, diethyl ether, and ethyl amines.
9. Because it can dissolve both polar and nonpolar molecules, this chemical finds widespread application as a solvent.

Difference Between Ethanol and Methanol

Summary

Methanol, or \({CH_3OH}\),  is an alcohol consisting of only four elements: hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, making it both water- and biodegradable. It burns cleanly and decomposes easily. It has the chemical formula \({C_2H_5OH}\) and is simple alcohol. Ethanol is an almost colourless liquid with a strong, winey aroma and flavour. Primarily, ethanol is ethane with a hydroxyl group inserted into one of its hydrogens. Both compounds are vital to numerous industries and have widespread application.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is ethanol biomass?

Ans. Ethanol biomass is the ethanol produced entirely through various plants. It is produced mainly through the process of fermentation utilizing microorganisms such as bacteria and yeast. 

2. Can methanol be created through natural sources?

Ans. Certain bacteria species create methanol spontaneously through anaerobic respiration. Aside from that, we can create it industrially using fossil fuels such as natural gas and coal.

3. Why is alcohol denatured?

Ethanol is often denatured to discourage its recreational use and to make it usable for industrial purposes and fuel manufacturing.  Pyridine and methanol are generally used for this purpose. 

Introduction

The terms nucleophile and electrophile were coined by Christopher Kelk Ingold in 1933 to replace A. J. Lapworth’s anionic and cationic terminology. The term “electrophile” is a result of merging the words “electro,” denoting electrons, and “philes,” indicating a sentimental attachment. The word nucleophile comes from the combination of the Greek word ‘Philos,’ which means buddy, and the word nucleus. The field of chemistry relies heavily on these two concepts. Many organic reactions rely on the presence of these chemical substances. Electrophiles and nucleophiles, whose opposing behaviour is the impetus for many chemical processes, are well-known entities. Thus, it is clear that these definitions are crucial for a full comprehension of chemical processes.

Overview of Nucleophiles

Chemical species known as nucleophiles are able to give up a pair of electrons. They give up electrons because they are a species with an abundance of electrons. The word nucleophiles can be broken down into its component parts to denote any species that shows a preference for the nucleus. They are referred to be Lewis bases because of their ability to donate the pair of electrons they already possess. Lone-pair-of-electron species and negatively charged species are examples of neutral species. These chemical species are the ones that give up their pair of electrons during a chemical reaction, resulting in the creation of covalent bonds.

Nucleophilicity, which is comparable to the term basicity, describes the degree to which specific nucleophiles can transfer the pair of electrons. The element ammonia is a good example of a nucleophile because it has an unpaired electron.

Examples of Nucleophiles

As nucleophiles are negatively charged or they are species that contain lone pair of electrons. Some examples of nucleophiles can be given as, 

• All the halogen anions,\(B{r^ – },C{l^ – },{I^ – }\)
• Cyanide,\(C{N^ – }\)
• Ammonia, \({NH_3}\)
• Hydroxide ion

Structure of hydroxide ion

Features of Nucleophiles

This section elaborates on some of the key characteristics that nucleophiles must process.

1. There must be a net negative charge on a nucleophile, or it must have a lone pair of electrons if it is an electrically neutral species. Therefore, nucleophiles are typically anions.
2. A decreased electronegativity is required of nucleophiles in order for them to donate electron pairs effectively, so that they can be considered an inventive nucleophile. As a result, nucleophiles are often composed of less electronegative species.
3. The strength of nucleophiles can be affected by the solvent used in a chemical reaction, especially if the solvent is polar or protic and acts upon the nucleophiles.
4. Polar solvents can create hydrogen bonds with nucleophiles’ lone pairs of electrons, decreasing the likelihood that the nucleophiles will donate their electrons to other molecules.
5. The rate of nucleophilic reactions can be slowed if nucleophiles are sterically hindered. 

Overview of Electrophiles

Chemical substances having electron deficiency are called electrophiles. As a result, it attracts electrons towards itself since it has high electronic efficiency.

Two individual words, “electro” and “philes,” make up the phrase “electrophiles.” Electrophiles is a compound term that means “electron-loving species.” These substances might be either positively or neutrally charged chemical species. These compounds will take part in addition and substitution processes involving electrophiles. When they like interacting with a partner electron, electrophiles are referred to be Lewis acids. For this reason, the creation of a covalent bond is contingent upon the presence of these chemical species, which are able to accept a pair of electrons as part of a chemical reaction.

Examples of Electrophiles

Features of Electrophiles

We’ll go through what makes a good electrophile, and what makes a bad one, in more depth below.

1. In order to accept electrons from reacting nucleophiles, an electrophile must be positively charged or have an unoccupied orbital.
2. To attract electrons, an electrophile needs to have a weak link, hence electrophiles typically have weak polar bonds.
3. Because of steric hindrance, electrons cannot be transferred to electrophiles if they are too close to other electrophiles. Thus, an electrophile should not be sterically hindered. 

Difference Between Electrophiles and Nucleophiles

Some of the differences between electrophiles and nucleophiles are tabulated in the following table.

Summary

Chemical reactions take place by the donation and acceptance of electrons from one species to another species. Electrophiles and nucleophiles are two important chemical species that are necessary to undergo a chemical reaction. Electrophiles are the species that are positively charged or it a container back in the orbital to acceptive electrons. While nucleophiles are the chemical species that negatively charge lone pair of electrons so that they can donate this pair of electrons to another species. Some of the examples of electrophiles are \({BF_3}\) ,\({AlCl_3}\)

etc. And examples of nucleophiles are, \(C{N^ – },O{H^ – }\), etc. The important features of electrophiles and nucleophiles are affected by factors such as charge, electronegativity, steric hindrance, etc.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Which of the following is the most powerful nucleophile in a nonpolar solution: I, Br, Cl, or F? 

Ans. Since the strength of a nucleophile increases with increasing electronegativity in nonpolar solutions, fluorine (F) is the most potent nucleophile in such a medium. As far as electronegativity goes, fluorine is the winner. That’s why it’s the strongest nucleophile there is.

2. What is the effect of solvent on nucleophilicity of a molecule?

Ans. Nucleophilic replacements benefit from more polar solvents since the nucleophile is generally an ionic molecule and needs to be dissolved in a polar solvent. Ions may be more stable in polar solvents than in others.

3. Why is \({BH_3}\) an electrophile?

Ans. \({BH_3}\) is an electrophile since the boron atom has an empty p orbital and an electron deficiency. Thus it easily acts as an electrophile. 

Introduction

An atom is the smallest unit of matter that preserves all the features of its element, while a molecule is a compound made up of numerous bonded atoms. Atoms and molecules are related, notwithstanding their differences. Atoms are the smallest unit of matter, while molecules are made up of several atoms, therefore they are clearly different from one another. A tomos, from the Greek a-tomos, means “indivisible,” which is apt because atoms are indivisible. Therefore, molecules can be further divided but atoms cannot.

Definition of Atom

Elements can be identified by their unique atoms, which are stable and resistant to chemical breakdown. Atoms typically consist of a nucleus composed of neutral protons and neutrons, with electrons carrying negative charges and circling the nucleus. The size of an atom is dependent on its number of protons and neutrons, as well as the existence or absence of electrons. The typical size of an atom is around 100 picometers, or 1/10 billionth of a metre. Nucleus mass is virtually entirely due to protons and neutrons because electrons contribute so little.

 Atomic Structure

Features of atom on the bases of modern atomic theory 

1. The term “modern atomic theory” is used to describe the most up-to-date, canonical explanation of atoms.
2. According to the foundations of atomic theory, atoms are the smallest units of chemical matter. They are the most basic building blocks of chemistry; they cannot be broken down any more.
3. Each element has its own distinct atomic structure, which differs from that of every other element.
4. Although, atoms can break down into much smaller particles. The nucleus of every element contains the same amount of protons, which are positively charged subatomic particles.
5. Neutrons are also present in the nucleus, albeit the exact number varies amongst isotopes of the same atomic type.
6. There are two types of atoms in the universe: isotopes, which have a varied number of neutrons but the same number of protons. For example, whereas all hydrogen atoms share a single proton, hydrogen-2 also has a neutron while hydrogen-1 does not.

 Proton, electron and neutron

Introduction of Molecule

Atoms of a molecule are held together in a certain configuration by chemical bonds. A molecule, like\({O_2}\), can consist of two or more atoms of the same element or of atoms from different elements. The properties of a chemical depend on the arrangements of its atoms within its molecule. The molecular weight is comparable to the sum of the atomic weights of the molecule’s constituent elements.

Bonding in Atoms

A molecule will be formed by bonding of two or more atoms. The atomic bonding is of several types such as:

Ionic bond

By sharing electrons between atoms, an ionic bond is formed. An ionically bonded substance is salt (NaCl), for instance. One of sodium’s outermost electrons is given up to chlorine so that the latter can finish filling its shell.

Covalent bond

To form a covalent bond, two or more atoms must share electrons from their outermost shell. Polymers are an example of materials that use covalent bonding. Polymers typically consist of long chains of hydrogen and carbon atoms connected via covalent bonds.

Metallic bond

When the electrons in the outermost shell are not paired with any particular atom or ion but instead exist as a “cloud” of electrons surrounding the ion centres, a metallic bond is formed. Magnesium, sodium, and aluminium are all examples of elements that form metallic bonds.

Difference between Atoms and Molecules

Summary

According to scientific consensus, the smallest unit of an element that can or cannot exist freely is an atom. Instead, the smallest unit of a compound is a molecule, which consists of a collection of atoms bound together by chemical forces. It’s possible for an atom to be either free or bound. To be sure, molecules exist in a liberated form as well. Aside from that, an atom has a nucleus filled with protons and neutrons and electrons around it. Conversely, molecules are made up of two or more atoms that are chemically bound together and may share some or all of their properties.

 

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Are there no forces of attraction between the molecules of inert gases?

Ans. Inert gases have stable molecules that are not attracted to one another by electrostatic forces but do have weak van der Waals attractions and London dispersion forces.

2. Is  polar bond an ionic bond ?

Ans. No, a polar bond is not an ionic bond. It is a  specific kind of covalent bond which is formed between an electronegative and an electropositive atom .

3. What is the difference between positron and electron?

Ans. Electrons having the opposite chirality or quantum spin are called Positrons. The polarity of the electric charge is reversed since the spin is anticlockwise. Electrons are found inside an atom while positrons are not.

Introduction

An atom is the smallest component of any given element. Subatomic particles like as the proton, neutron, and electron can be further isolated from atoms, which were once thought to be invincible. Since the quantity of protons and electrons in every atom is the same, every atom is non-conducting.

When an atom loses or gains an electron, the resulting change in charge is noticeable. These charged particles are called ions. Either by gaining electrons (in which case they are called anions) or by losing them (in which case they are called cations), atoms and molecules acquire or lose their charge. The atomic theory’s central idea is that atoms are the smallest building blocks of matter. None of the simplest chemical compounds or elements are capable of decomposing any further.

Atom

A nucleus, which is positively charged, is packed closely with electrons, which are negatively charged, to form the smallest unit of an element called atom. The structure of an atom, on the one hand, and the additional nucleus region, on the other. The neutron (n°) and the proton (P+) make up the atomic structure. Negatively charged electrons are housed in the supplementary nucleus (e-).

All elements and compounds, including atoms, have mass. The protons in an atom’s nucleus are largely responsible for the extreme density of matter there. The proton is the most massive subatomic particle, followed by the neutron and then the electron.

An electron orbits the nucleus of a hydrogen atom, which contains a single proton. Hydrogen is the most lightweight element.

The nucleus of each atom has a specific amount of protons, and these protons attract a matching number of electrons, rendering the atom electrically neutral. Ions can be created by either adding or removing electrons from atoms. A few examples of these elements are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and iron.

Features of atom on the bases of modern atomic theory 

1. The term “modern atomic theory” is used to describe the most up-to-date, canonical explanation of atoms.
2. According to the foundations of atomic theory, atoms are the smallest units of chemical matter. They are the most basic building blocks of chemistry; they cannot be broken down any more.
3. Each element has its own distinct atomic structure, which differs from that of every other element.
4. Although, atoms can break down into much smaller particles. The nucleus of every element contains the same amount of protons, which are positively charged subatomic particles.
5. Neutrons are also present in the nucleus, albeit the exact number varies amongst isotopes of the same atomic type.
6. There are two types of atoms in the universe: isotopes, which have a varied number of neutrons but the same number of protons. For example, whereas all hydrogen atoms share a single proton, hydrogen-2 also has a neutron while hydrogen-1 does not.

Ions 

When the number of protons and electrons in an atom becomes unbalanced, ions form. Common charged particles include ions. An ion could have either a positive or a negative charge. If an atom has an electrical charge, it is said to be an ion. An anion is an atom in which the number of electrons is greater than the number of protons. When there are more protons than electrons in an atom, we call it a cation. It’s doable without any outside help. In the process of gaining or losing electrons, an atom becomes an ion. Ions can be divided into two categories: anions (-) and cations (+).

When an atom receives an electron, its electron count rises; as a result, it acquires a negative charge. When an atom loses an electron, it receives more protons than it loses, giving the atom a positive charge.

Difference between Atom and Ion

Summary

The contemporary atomic theory suggests that there are two components to an atom. The nucleus and the atomic orbitals. Electrostatic repulsion does not exist between protons and neutrons, hence the nucleus is composed of both types of particles. All stuff is composed of smaller and smaller particles called atoms. Subatomic particles can change into ions by gaining or losing an electron. Ions are sometimes mistaken for atoms, but not always; some compounds can undergo an electron-loss or -gain transformation to become ions. Ions have a net electrical charge, while atoms do not; this is the main contrast between the two.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the function of the nucleus in an atom?

Ans. The nucleus of an atom contains the vast majority of the atom’s mass in the form of protons and neutrons. These two hold down the nucleus. The electrons orbit the nucleus.

2. Does the property on an ion differ from its parent atom?

Ans. Ions have different electronic configuration than their parent atoms. It results in different chemical properties because of the presence of charge. It also differs in terms of size. 

3. Who discovered atom?

Ans. Democritus invented the atom in 450 B.C. He separated a matter into smaller and smaller fragments until it could no longer be divided. He called them atomos, afterwards renamed atoms. John Dalton revives Democritus’ hypothesis and performs several experiments to establish atoms exist.

Introduction

The term “fluid” is used to describe a material that may take on several forms. Things that are fluids are ones that can be moved around rather easily. This chapter focuses on the physical properties of viscosity and surface tension shown by fluids. The two processes are dependent on molecular interactions. Both surface tension and viscosity are measures of a fluid’s elasticity; the former is responsible for the fluid’s relatively small surface area, while the latter indicates how much is its fluidity. 

What is Surface Tension?

• Surface tension is a fluid’s tendency to take on the smallest possible footprint on a surface.
• Liquids have this quality because the molecules near the surface are in a different state from the molecules deeper in the substance.
• When a molecule sinks below the liquid’s surface, it is surrounded by other molecules and experiences equal attraction in all directions.
• Therefore, the molecule is not being attracted by any net force.
• Surface tension is affected by the attractive forces exerted by the surrounding solid, liquid, and nearby particles, as well as those exerted by the particles themselves.
• As the temperature is increased, the surface tension and the net force of attraction between molecules are both diminished.
• The energy needed to increase the liquid’s surface area by one unit is released by surface tension. The fundamental characteristic of the liquid surface that resists force is also surface tension. In particular, it maintains a barrier between the liquid and foreign objects, and it also acts as the force holding the molecules of liquid together.

Applications

• Surface tension is a major factor in many manufacturing processes.
• All businesses with a research and development department use surface tension phenomena to better their products.
• Among the various methods used to raise the standard of production is the development of new detergent formulas.
• Detergent formulations that incorporate more biological surfactants allow for more effective cleaning at lower temperatures.
• Characterizing food, medicine, and packaging all rely heavily on surface tension data.
• Raindrops are spherical because of the cohesive connections between the precipitation molecules and the surface tension of the water molecules.
• Detergents are helpful due to their property of su
• Adding soap or detergent to water lowers the surface tension of the liquid, allowing the water molecules to permeate the fibres and wash away the oil and liquid wax.
• Oil’s lower surface tension than water makes it easier for it to spread across the water’s surface.
• Mosquito eggs can float on the water’s surface because of the water’s surface tension.
• Soap is often included in toothpaste formulations because it reduces the product’s surface tension, allowing for easier distribution.

What is Viscosity?

• Viscosity is a measure of resistance to a fluid’s capacity to flow. 
• The resistance to the movement of a fluid, or its viscosity, is the result of friction between the molecules in that fluid.
• Fast-moving fluids have less internal resistance than slow-moving fluids. This is because of the intense intermolecular forces at play.
• Those liquids that move very slowly have a high internal resistance. The cause of this is the weak intermolecular forces present between them.
• An rise in temperature reduces the viscosity of liquids but raises that of gases. Therefore, heat makes liquids more pliable, whereas gases become more resistant to change in velocity.
• When a liquid’s viscosity increases, its flow rate decreases.

Applications

• The highly viscous fluid is used as brake oil in hydraulic brakes and to dampen the movement of a variety of instruments.
• The way blood flows through arteries and veins is regulated by the viscosity of fluids.
• When it comes to lubricating the moving elements of heavy equipment, oil with a high viscosity coefficient is your best bet. Insight into the viscosity of a lubricant and how it changes with temperature can help us select the most appropriate option.
• To find out how much an electron weighs, Millikan used the oil-drop experiment. Because of his expertise in viscosity, he was able to calculate the potential energy.

Summary

The viscosity of a fluid is directly proportional to the amount of friction it encounters as it moves through a given space. The resistance to motion in a fluid, known as its viscosity, is caused by friction between the molecules of that fluid. Internal resistance is lower for fluids that are moving quickly. This is because of the intense intermolecular forces at play. The tendency of a fluid to leave as small a footprint as possible on a surface is an example of surface tension. Liquids have this property because molecules at the surface are in a different state from those deeper in the material. 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the difference between dynamic and kinematic viscosity?

Ans: The friction between two layers of a fluid during motion is known as its dynamic viscosity. As most cases, it will be expressed in centipoise. The dynamic viscosity of a fluid is converted into a kinematic viscosity by dividing it by the fluid’s density.

2. How is viscosity measured?

Ans: The viscosity is determined using the viscosity coefficient. This value is independent of the specific liquid being analyzed and remains constant over time. Formally, the coefficient of viscosity is estimated using the Poiseuille’s method, in which the liquid flows through a tube at various pressures.

3. What benefits does viscosity in vehicle industry?

Ans: Increases in viscosity, brought on by higher temperatures, tend to lessen wear and oil consumption. A decrease in viscosity caused by cooler temperatures improves ignition and reduces fuel use.

Introduction

Evaporation is the transition from the liquid to the vapour phase that takes place at pressures and temperatures below the boiling point (a condition of a substance just below its critical temperature). Evaporation occurs only when a substance’s relative vapour pressure is less than its equilibrium state vapour pressure. However, rather than a phase shift from liquid to gaseous, boiling is the formation of vapour as vapour bubbles immediately below the surface of the liquid. Rather than the literal conversion of the substance to gas, the term “vaporisation” has been used informally or hyperbolically to represent the actual physical disintegration of an object when subjected to high temperature or explosive force.

What is Vaporization?

Vaporization can be thought of as the transformation from a liquid to a gaseous state. When the temperature is raised, the kinetic potential of the molecules also increases. The force of attraction between molecules weakens as their kinetic energy increases. Because of this, they become airborne and spread over the area. This process requires the use of thermal energy.

Types of Vaporization

There are three types of vaporisation:

Evaporation

If you lower the temperature of a liquid below its critical point, you can cause a phase transition is known as evaporation to occur, in which the liquid changes into a gas.

The top is the primary site of evaporation. To begin evaporating, a substance must have a partial vapour pressure less than its equilibrium. So, for instance, if you continuously sucked the air out of a solution, you’d eventually be left with just a cryogenic liquid.

Boiling

Boiling is not a phase transition from the liquid state to the gaseous state but rather the creation of vapour below the surface of the liquid as vapour bubbles. Boiling occurs when the chemical’s equilibrium vapour pressure is higher than or equal to the ambient pressure. The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which boiling occurs. The boiling point is affected by atmospheric pressure.

Sublimation

We know that ice melts into a liquid, and subsequently, the liquid evaporates into steam. However, there is a process through which matter can transition from its solid state into its vapour state, bypassing the liquid state entirely. Sublimation is the direct transformation of a solid into a gas.

Factors affecting the Rate of Vaporization

The rate of vaporization is affected by several factors, such as:

• The concentration of minerals in the solution.
• The amount of a substance that evaporates into the air.
• Due to the increased interactions between the molecules, more energy is needed to escape the liquid state.
• The point at which the liquid or gas begins to evaporate is called the vaporisation temperature. 
• Reduced surface tension allows molecules to escape the surface faster, leading to increased evaporation rates.
• Evaporation rate is proportional to the surface kinetic potential of the molecules, which increases with temperature.
• Width of the Surface: Evaporation rates are proportional to the number of particles on the surface, so a bigger surface area means higher evaporation.
• If “clean” air (wind that is not yet laden with a drug or even other chemicals) is constantly passing across the substance, allowing for rapid evaporation, the amount of the chemical in the atmosphere is less likely to rise over time.
• Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the air.
• Because warmer air can hold more water vapour than cooler air, the evaporation rate will increase if the wind speed and humidity stay constant.

Examples of Vaporization in Our Daily Life 

• Clothing that has been soaking wet can be dried through evaporation.
• This occurs when moisture in damp garments is evaporated when exposed to the sun’s thermal radiation.
• Separating the components of a mixture using this method is a common practice in many industrial processes.
• Using a vaporisation process, salt is produced from seawater in an industrial setting.
• Evaporation is used to remove salt from saltwater to produce table salt.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the significance of the latent heat of vaporisation?

Ans: During a change of condition, heat energy is effectively hidden.

Latent heat, a form of hidden power used only during phase transitions, is also called the latent heat of vaporisation when it happens during the phase transition from liquid to gas.

2. What is critical temperature?

Ans. It is possible to define the critical temperature of a substance as the greatest temperature at which the substance can be in a liquid state.

No amount of pressure can cause a gas to turn into a liquid after it has reached a temperature over its critical temperature.

3. Does latent heat of vaporisation depend on the mass of the substance?

Ans. No, the latent heat of vaporisation does not depend on the mass of the substance. It has a fixed value at a given temperature and is not affected by the substance’s mass or volume.