Category: Chemistry

Introduction

A battery is an electronic device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy through a redox reaction. They are typically composed of a combination of cells, with cells being the fundamental unit of batteries. Energy is stored in these cells and drawn as current and thus, the output of any battery depends on the combination of cells used inside it. 

There are two terminals on batteries, of which, one end is known as the cathode and the other end as the anode. Upon connecting a circuit to the battery, electrons can move from one node to the other and thus, current can flow through the circuit. In electrical circuits, batteries and cells can be connected in various combinations such as series, parallel, and even mixed. Today, various types of batteries are available in the market, including Pb-acid batteries, Li-ion batteries, Ni-Cd batteries, etc.

Important terms related to battery

EMF of battery: When no external factors and voltage sources are present, the potential difference between the two terminals of the battery is known as its emf, short for electromotive force.

Terminal voltage: When current starts flowing in the circuit, the potential difference between the battery’s terminals is termed as terminal voltage. Note that since the battery is an electrical device, resistance to current flow is natural. The resistance offered by the battery itself is known as internal resistance, and it creates a voltage drop across its terminals.

Let V be this voltage drop and E be the emf of the battery. Then,

Internal voltage drop= E-V

Internal resistance: As mentioned, the battery has an inherent resistance inside it, which is known as internal resistance.

Batteries in series and parallel

Series combination

This is like creating a train of batteries. The positive terminal of each battery is connected to the negative terminal of the next one and in this arrangement, the same amount of current flows through each of them. Hence, the voltages offered by the batteries can be added algebraically to get:

Parallel combination

In this combination, the positive terminals of all the batteries are connected to each other and the same is done for all the negative ones. In this configuration, the voltages dropped across the terminals remain the same and we can add current algebraically.

Connecting batteries in series

Series combination is used when we need to increase the voltage without changing the amount of current. Here is an example:

Say we had a battery of EMF 20 V and capacity 100 A-h. Then, if we connect them in series as shown below, we would end up with a combination that yielded us 40 V output but with no change in capacity.

Series combination

Hence, we get an output with increased voltage. Note that the capacities of the batteries must be the same or they might get damaged.

Advantages of Series Combination

1. Since the current flow does not increase, there is no additional heat generated.
2. It is simpler than parallel combinations.
3. The voltage drop increases.

Disadvantages of Series Combination

1. Any break or damage in the circuit at any point will damage the circuit.
2. Increased number of components also increases the resistance of the circuit.
3. A low voltage system is not compatible with this combination.

Batteries in Parallel

If we wish to increase the capacities of batteries without changing the output voltage, we use a parallel configuration. This increases the current flow in the circuit. For instance, given two batteries of 24 V, 100 A-h each, connecting them in parallel would give us a battery that provides 200 A-h at 24 V.

Parallel Combination

This sort of combination is used in solar panels.

Advantages of Parallel Combination

1. The capacity increases, yielding to increase in use-time,
2. The voltage remains the same.

Disadvantages of Parallel Combination

1. The current is increased, causing heat to increase.
2. Charging batteries in this configuration takes longer.

Mixed Combination

As implied by the name, mixed combination is the combination of some batteries connected in series linked together in parallel combination or vice versa. This is a complex arrangement that can help us generate almost any combination we want from a given bunch of batteries.

For example, suppose we were given six batteries of 15 V and 100 A-h each. We could combine them as follows:

1. Set 1 – B1 and B2 linked in series = 15V + 15V = 30V, 100 amp hour
2. Set 2 – B3 and B4 linked in series = 15V +15V = 30V, 100 amp hour
3. Set 3 – B5 and B6 linked in series = 15V + 15V = 30V, 100 amp hour

Next, we would combine the above sets in parallel, giving us a 30 V, 300 A-h configuration, visible in the diagram below.

Mixed combination

Hence, the effective voltage drop will remain at 30 V, but the capacity would be three-folds.

Summary

Depending on our requirements and the scenario in question, different combinations of batteries can be used. The most commonly used ones are series, parallel, and mixed grouping of batteries. What we use is entirely up to us and depends on the requirements of the circuit. The output of the configuration depends on its design and thus, if we needed higher voltage, we would opt for series combination and if needed higher capacity, we would use parallel configuration. Similarly, mixed grouping allows us to generate arbitrary configurations from a given set of batteries.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Can we put a 12V 100 amp hour battery and a 15V 200 amp hour battery in a series combination?

No, since they have different capacities. For series combination, the capacities of the batteries must be the same.

2. How does a battery work?

A battery is composed of electrochemical cells, which convert chemical energy into electrical energy. When connected to a circuit, ions flow inside, leading to the flow of current.

3. Name the reaction that takes place in the batteries

The process is known as redox reaction and it involves reduction and oxidation simultaneously.

4. How are batteries classified?

Batteries may be classified as follows:

1. Primary batteries: These are one-time batteries which can not be recharged after they get depleted.
2. Secondary batteries: These batteries can be recharged after use, giving them longer life. 

5. What type of electrical combination is used for domestic purposes and why?

In domestic applications, parallel combination is used since it supplies an equal amount of voltage to all the devices, which is necessary for proper functioning.

Introduction

Protein, DNA, and RNA can all be separated from one another using an external electric field and this laboratory technique. As the gel or matrix employed includes a given size and enables just a particular molecule, the separation of molecules occurs on the basis of charge and size. Only very small particles, such as atoms or ions, may fit through the pores. By doing so, molecular separation is possible.

When electricity flows, ions can migrate to various poles. In electrophoresis, the movement of anions is known as anaphoresis and that of cations is known as cataphoresis. When a current is applied, proteins migrate to the positive poles, where they may be more easily separated.

What is Electrophoresis?

Electrophoresis is the process by which a current drives charged molecules to separate poles. Molecules with a positive charge will go away from the cathode and towards the anode. Negatively charged molecules will seek out a cathode, which is the opposite pole of an electrode.

As proteins and nucleic acids are negatively charged, they gravitate towards the cathode. Because to its association with electricity and ion motion, electro kinetics is another name for this field. Capillary electrophoresis and slab electrophoresis are the two most common forms. Gel and paper electrophoresis are examples of capillary electrophoresis, while Iso-electro focusing and Zone electrophoresis are examples of slab electrophoresis.

Gel Electrophoresis

Applications of Electrophoresis

Electrophoresis is applied in many fields because of its feasibility and inexpensive mode. Some of its applications are,

DNA Fragmentation and DNA Analysis 

Gel electrophoresis is the process used for the separation of DNA fragments based on their size. The approximate size of DNA is also obtained in this process

Protein Detection

Gel electrophoresis is again employed for the detection of proteins. Proteins have higher migratory power and that is employed for its detection. By the application of external current, the charged particles of proteins will migrate towards their opposite electrodes. As protein is negatively charged it will migrate towards the cathode. It can also use the liquid matrix for the separation. The majority of protein applications can be achieved by the use of this process. They include purity determination and purification of proteins.

Testing of Antibodies

Immune electrophoresis detects antibodies. Antibodies on a gel do it. blood test. If the sample contains the antigen, an antigen-antibody complex will form. IgA, IgM, etc. are easily diagnosed.

Factors affecting the Process of Electrophoresis

Some factors can substantially affect the process of electrophoresis. They are,

Electric Field: Electric field is responsible for the movement of charged particles towards the oppositely charged electrodes. So it plays an important role in the process of electrophoresis.

 Sample features/details: The features of the sample such as size, shape, and charge have an important role since it is a size-based and charge-based separation. If the charge of a molecule is high the rate of migration will also high. But if the size increases the rate will decrease.

Buffer: For stabilizing the pH of the medium buffer solution is necessary the use of zwitterionic buffers will be much better.

Supporting Medium: It plays a predominant role since the medium can alter the rate of migration by having some adsorption property. Electro osmosis will also result due to some mediums. So selection of a proper support medium will increase the rate of migration.

 How does gel electrophoresis work?

Gel electrophoresis is a type of electrophoresis in which charged particles or ions of biological molecules can be separated by the application of an external field. They move through a gel hence the name gel electrophoresis is used. And its movement is called migration. And the migration of ions is to oppositely charged electrodes. The electric current for this process is applied across the gel. The gel acts as a sieve since it contains small pores that can only allow small-sized molecules. DNA fragments are distinguished using this electrophoresis. And DNA is a negatively charged species so it will migrate to the rds cathode.

What is agarose gel electrophoresis?

One of agar’s main components is a matrix for the electric current-based synthesis of macromolecules. Agarose gel is commonly employed as a matrix in the separation of DNA and big protein molecules because it is simple to cast, has a good pore size, and has a good gel strength. It has several charged groups and aids in water movement in the opposite direction of DNA movement towards the anode. A larger concentration of agarose gel is required for the separation of tiny molecules.

What are the advantages of electrophoresis?

The advantages of electrophoresis are,

• The mode of operation of this technique is easy.
• Short time is only needed.
• Needs only a low sample.
• The consumption of electrolytes during the process is low.
• Can be used as an analytical tool and also as a synthesis tool.
• The bulk amount of proteins shall be separated.
• Inexpensive apparatus.

Summary

Samples are separated by size and charge using electrophoresis. It is medium dependent, and the various forms it takes are defined by the medium used. Several types of electrophoresis in tubes and capillaries. Gel electrophoresis, zone electrophoresis, etc., are also included. Gel electrophoresis stands out because it is used to separate proteins, DNA, RNA, and other biomolecules. Gels aid the separation process since only molecules of a certain size may pass through them; if an electric field is applied, the molecules in question will align themselves into a distinct band, making them easy to identify. The supercoiled structure of agarose gel makes it a viable alternative matrix. Electrophoresis has various benefits due to being a cheap and efficient method.

 Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the difference between SDS-PAGE and Native PAGE?

Ans. SDS-PAGE (sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) is a technique used to separate proteins based on their size and charge. Native PAGE (polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) is a technique used to separate proteins based on their size and shape. 

2. What is Capillary Electrophoretic Enzyme Assay?

Ans. Applications of the analytical separative technique known as capillary electrophoresis (CE) extend far beyond the realm of enzymatic research.

In an open capillary, the substrate and the product are separated by size and charge in an electric field.

3. What is the haemoglobin electrophoresis test?

Ans: It is an electrophoresis test that can be used to the identification of the amount of haemoglobin present in the sample blood.

Introduction

In the lab, chromatography is used to dissect complex mixtures into their constituent parts. The process of separating the components of a mixture is known as chromatography. In order to accomplish this, a mobile phase and a stationary phase are utilised. Since various components in a mixture are subject to varying degrees of influence from the solvent, the mobile phase transports some of the mixture’s components while leaving the stationary phase behind As a result, certain parts will progress quickly while others lag behind. Each component has a unique Rf value. Considering how useful it is in both the purification and analysis processes, it can be found in a wide variety of contexts.

What is the Chromatography technique?

For analytical purposes, a mixture’s distribution into two phases provides a useful starting point for determining how to break it down into its constituent parts. Two such stages are the “mobile” and “stationary” states.

The non-moving phase is called the stationary phase, while the moving phase is called the mobile phase. A glass plate, column, sheet, or anything else is acceptable as the stationary phase. The mobile phase might be either a gas or a liquid.

Since it turns out that every type of molecule has its own unique characteristics. As a result, the Rf value will be unique to each. The Rf number describes how many solute molecules were transported for every one solvent molecule.

Chromatography

What is the Principle of Chromatography?

Chromatography operates on the idea of separating components based on their varied affinities to phases involved. Different components in a combination bind to the mobile phase and the stationary phase with varying strengths.

Applications of Chromatography in the Pharmaceutical Industry

 In the pharmaceutical sector, chromatography is commonly employed as a quality control measure once a chemical has been manufactured.Many different types of chromatography have been used in the pharmaceutical sector. It is employed in both compound analysis and the industrial production of compounds. Separation of chiral substances has also been discovered to benefit from chromatography. 

Applications of Chromatography in the Food Industry

Chromatography has been used for quality control in the food business. Chromatography is useful for determining what kinds of ingredients are in a given dish. Considering the importance of health, it is crucial to pack food with nutrients and vitamins. Several illnesses may be brought on by a deficiency in necessary vitamins and nutrients.

Applications of Chromatography in the Chemical Industry

In the chemical industry, it has applications in the chemical synthesis process. It acts as an assistant for obtaining a particular product. Chromatography has also been used in the pesticide industry for finding the presence of contaminants. For checking the pollutant present in water and air chromatography is used. So it is used in the chemical industry for monitoring several chemical reactions.

Applications of Chromatography in the Field of Molecular Biology

Biological separation using chromatography brings into the world considerable impact on the health and wellness of the people. Without this technique, the preparation method we employ, the synthesis of a particular molecule, etc. will be useless. It has helped researchers to find results faster and with purity. So it has a significant role in molecular biology too.

How is chromatography used in the environmental analysis?

Chromatography has wide application in the analysis of environmental issues. Understanding whether the air is polluted or not is very important since quality air is very essential for the proper living of species. Gas chromatography has been used for this case. 

How is chromatography useful in Forensic Science?

 Chromatography has a vital application in forensic science. For collecting information about the cause of death of a human, chromatography has been employed. It can be used for testing whether a person is infected with some poison, alcohol, drugs, etc. 

Commonly employed chromatography techniques include:

Column chromatography: The stationary phase used in this chromatography is a column and a solvent is used as the mobile phase. Components are separated by their difference in affinity to the solvent. And is used to remove impurities present in a particular compound.

 Ion-exchange chromatography: Separation based on the ions involved in a compound. An ion exchange resin is used as the stationary phase. For water purification, this technique is used.

 Gel-permeation (molecular sieve) chromatography: Separation based on the size of the molecule is gel permeation chromatography. For finding the molecular weight of polymers. This technique is used.

 Affinity chromatography: It is based on specific and highly selective reactions of components present in a mixture. Used for the purification of proteins and nucleic acids.

Paper chromatography: It involves the use of paper as a stationary phase and a solution or solvent as the mobile phase. It is used for purity checking in the pharmaceutical industry.

Thin-layer chromatography: Separation using a thin layer of adsorbent is thin layer chromatography. Mainly used to separate none volatile substances.

Gas chromatography (GS): Separating volatile chemical compounds is gas chromatography. And the mobile phase is a gas stream and a column is used as the stationary phase. It is used widely in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries.

 Dye-ligand chromatography: Columns pasted with dye ligand act as a stationary phase and are separated with the use of affinity. It is used for protein purification.

Hydrophobic interaction chromatography: This separation of components is based on the hydrophobicity of components. Low water-soluble molecules are separated based on this technique. For example in protein purification. 

 Pseudo Affinity chromatography: The separation of protein molecules by the use of dyes that mimic ligands is pseudo affinity chromatography. It is used in protein purification. 

High-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC): It involves the use of liquid mobile phase under high pressure and thereby separating molecules from its mixture. It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for the identification of impurities present in it.

Summary

Chromatography is one of the analytical techniques that may be used to separate and purify molecules. It can be used in the pharmaceutical and food industries, among others. Although while analysis is where this technology shines most, it has also been put to use in molecule creation. Chromatography uses two phases—a mobile phase and a stationary phase—to isolate individual substances from a mixture. These phases also serve as a basis for categorising the various chromatographic methods. Methods including gas chromatography, gel permeation chromatography, paper chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography, and others are all included.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the difference between flash and preparative chromatography??

Ans: Flash chromatography is used to quickly purify compounds, while preparative chromatography is used to purify compounds with higher resolution.

2. What is isocratic and gradient elution?

Ans: Isocratic elution is used to separate and analyze compounds with a constant mobile phase composition, while gradient elution is used to separate and analyze compounds with a changing mobile phase composition.

3. Which criteria must be followed before selecting a mobile phase?

Ans: Before selecting a mobile phase we need to consider whether it is soluble or insoluble in a particular component that is going to separate. And also need to check the polarity of the compound that has been employed. 

Introduction 

Antonin Prandtl invented the first centrifuge in order to industrially separate milk and cream. Later in 1869, a Swiss researcher and physician named Meischer used centrifugation to separate DNA from the chromosomes in white blood cells. The field of genetics advanced significantly as a result of his work. Thanks to the work of many different chemists and biologists, the centrifuge and centrifugation have progressed and found new uses. Science centres and laboratories all around the world continue to make use of centrifuges and centrifugation to this day.

What is a Centrifuge?

A centrifuge is a machine that maintains a continuous centrifugal force to separate mixtures. It works on the principle of sedimentation. Inside a centrifuge the components of a mixture separate in accordance to their density under the influence of gravitational force. A centrifuge is operated by an electric motor. A centrifuge is a machine that maintains a continuous centrifugal force to separate mixtures. A centrifugal force is an internal force experienced by a rotating or revolving object. Centrifugal force acts outwards and against the direction of the centre of rotation. It works on the principle of sedimentation. Inside a centrifuge the components of a mixture separate in accordance to their density under the influence of gravitational force. A centrifuge is operated by an electric motor.

Usages of a Centrifuge

The centrifuge has vast applications in genetic engineering, medicine, chemistry, pharmacology,  microbiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, analytical chemistry, pathology, biotechnology, physiology and other related areas. 

Types of Centrifuges

The types of the centrifuge are discussed in the below table:

What is Centrifugation?

Centrifugation is a process in which mixtures are separated by utilizing centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is generated by a centrifugal machine or centrifuge when a sample is allowed to rotate. 

Centrifugal Force

A centrifugal force is a force (pseudo) experienced by an object moving in a curvilinear path. It is an apparent force. Centrifugal force acts outwards and against the centre of rotation. The concept of centrifugal force is applied in centrifuges and other similar rotating devices.

Types of Centrifugation

What are the Applications of Centrifugation?

Application of centrifugation involves

• Separation of two miscible substances
• Analysing hydrodynamic macromolecular properties
• Fractioning of subcellular organelles such as membranes
• Fractioning of membrane vesicles
• Separation of chalk powder from water
• Removal of fat and cream from milk to form low-fat milk
• Separation of particles from the air by employing cyclonic separation
• Clarifying & stabilization of wine
• Separation of physiological components such as urine components, blood components in forensic laboratories
• Separation of proteins 

Examples of centrifugation

Some common examples of centrifugation are:

• Centrifugal separation of components of urine, blood and other physiological fluids in pathology labs
• Sludge dewatering in waste treatment
• Cyclonic separation of gaseous components without using filters.
• The process of draining and washing clothes in a washing machine

Principle of Centrifugation

When suspended in a liquid, objects with greater density tend to sink while those with lower densities rise to the surface. As the density gradient widens, the rate of travel quickens. A centrifuge is a device used to apply a strong force perpendicular to the spin axis of an object while it rotates around a fixed axis. Centrifugal force is the term for this pushing outward force. More massive particles scatter outward, whereas less massive ones shift inward and cluster.

Factors that influence Centrifugation

Centrifugation is influenced by a number of factors such as: 

• Densities of solution
• Densities of components of solution
• Temperature 
• Viscosity of sample
• Distance of particle displacement
• Speed or rotation

Summary 

Separating substances by centrifugation is a common laboratory procedure for scientists and engineers. Using centrifugation effectively requires the use of specialised equipment called centrifuges. The solution mixture, process temperature, process type, and separation goal all play a role in choosing the appropriate centrifuge. All centrifuges work on the same basic concept, which is the use of centrifugal force. The use of centrifugation and centrifuges is not restricted to the laboratory; they also have practical applications in the dairy industry, the paint industry, waste management plants, etc. Classical centrifuges from decades past are still in use today.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the difference between centrifugation and filtration?

Ans: Centrifugation and filtration are both methods of separating particles from a solution. The main difference between the two is that centrifugation uses centrifugal force to separate particles, while filtration uses a filter to separate particles. 

2. How can the efficiency of centrifugation be improved?

Ans: The efficiency of centrifugation can be improved by using the correct rotor speed, using the correct centrifuge tube size, and using the correct centrifuge tube material.

3. What is centrifugal distillation?

Ans: Centrifugal distillation uses a combination of centrifugal force and evaporation and condensation to separate particles.

Introduction

When it comes to preventing and solving crimes, forensic science is invaluable. It’s utilized as evidence in court to help determine a defendant’s guilt or innocence and to help identify potential perpetrators. From the time the first fingerprint was used to identify a suspect in a murder in the 19th century, forensic science has played a role in the resolution of homicides. A lot of different tools and methods have been added to the field since then. DNA analysis, fingerprinting, ballistics, and toxicology are just a few of the methods used by modern forensic scientists to examine physical evidence.

What is Forensic Chemistry?

Forensic Chemistry would seem to be a branch of chemical sciences that thus combines chemical as well as toxicological techniques to detect unknown factors in such a crime scene. The tests have been performed by forensic chemists, who are experts in their field. To achieve goals, these professionals adopt a variety of tactics as well as techniques. 

What Does a Forensic Chemist do?

It is the job of a forensic chemist, who typically works in such a lab, to analyze evidence found at a crime scene. Investigators are hired by both the government and commercial firms. The samples are collected by the detectives or investigators and then sent to the forensic chemist for analysis. They need to be well-versed in both Organic and Particle Physics. Scientists utilize organic chemistry to analyze body samples for DNA and toxicants.

Role of a Forensic Chemist

A Forensic Chemist’s primary responsibility is to gather substances identified at a crime site and further analyze them to determine how they correlate to the crime. Forensic chemists combine chemistry, physics, as well as biology to discover compounds that could aid in the prosecution of a crime. Their job involves tracing chemicals, narcotics, as well as other substances, and even using methods such as spectroscopy, and chromatography, with the usage of infrared as well as ultraviolet lamps to locate evidence. Most of the samples recovered at crime scenes are retained, but if necessary, testing is performed on them.

Methods used in Forensic Chemistry

Chromatography: Some compounds are unknown but must be disassembled into individual elements for study. Chromatography is indeed the technique of separating the elements of any mixture. The mixture would be first dispersed in a material termed the mobile phase. The mobile phase can then be mixed with the second material, termed the stationary phase, as well as the mixture, which has been separated into two or more substances. It is widely used in investigations involving poisoning, explosives, and so on.

Spectroscopy: It is a method of detecting evidence used within forensic chemistry. This is primarily dependent on both absorptions as well as the emission of light or even radiation by materials as the wavelength of such radiation changes. This even relates to the collisions of electrons, protons, as well as ions.  This procedure is often performed to assess blood toxicity.

Spectroscopy Mechanism

Why a Forensic Chemistry Degree?

After completing their degree, forensic chemists could pursue a variety of careers, including:

• Chemical analyst
• Scientist in Biomedicine
• Investigator at a crime site
• Detective
• Forensic Scientist
• Technician in a scientific laboratory
• Toxicologist
• Secondary school instructor
• Computer forensic specialist
• Officer of the Border Force
• Science professor

Tips to Prepare for Forensic Chemistry

1. Take courses in chemistry, biology, and physics: A strong foundation in these three sciences is essential for success in forensic chemistry.
2. Develop strong laboratory skills: Forensic chemists must be able to accurately and precisely measure, analyze, and interpret data. 
3. Become familiar with the legal system: Understanding the legal system and the role of forensic chemists in it is essential for success in the field. 
4. Learn about the different types of evidence: Forensic chemists must be familiar with the different types of evidence that can be used in criminal investigations. 
5. Develop strong problem-solving skills: Forensic chemists must be able to think critically and solve complex problems. 
6. Become familiar with the latest technology: Forensic chemists must be able to use the latest technology to analyze evidence. 
7. Develop strong communication skills: Forensic chemists must be able to effectively communicate their findings to other professionals. 
8. Get experience in the field: Internships and volunteer opportunities can provide valuable experience in the field of forensic chemistry.

Summary

Forensic Chemistry is a subfield of forensic science. This is an example of chemists’ helping police with their investigations. It really is that important to the study as a whole. A Forensic Chemist is an expert in detecting and analysing substances found at a crime scene using a variety of Forensic Chemistry techniques. If they come upon anything useful, they’ll report it to the detective. Forensic science appears to rely primarily on spectroscopy and chromatography as its primary methods.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What type of chemical is utilized in fingerprinting?

To expose or even gather fingerprints, forensics experts use four basic chemicals: silver nitrate, ninhydrin, cyanoacrylate, as well as iodine. Certain chemicals react to elements within fingerprint, including oil as well as perspiration, changing the colour of the print and therefore, allowing experts to see it better.

2. What methods do forensic scientists use to examine drugs?

In most cases, forensic drug testing is conducted in 2 stages: screening as well as confirmation. When drugs are found via screening, such as spot test kits, samples have been collected and then forwarded to labs for confirmation testing.

3.Who is considered the father of forensic chemistry?

The “Father of Toxicology,” Mathieu Joseph Bonaventure Orfila (1787-1853), was the very first prominent nineteenth-century pioneer of forensic science. He tried to form chemical analysis, a common aspect of forensic medicine, but also researched asphyxiation, body decomposition, as well as exhumation.

Introduction

Colloids are a type of mixture in which one material is broken down into tiny particles (known colloidal particles) and spread throughout another. The particles are larger than those found in the solution, yet they are too small to be seen using a microscope. There are no precise size limits for colloidal particles, however, they tend to be in the 10-9m to  10-6m. Preparation of colloids can be done by two methods: dispersion and condensation methods.

What are Colloids?

Colloids are a special kind of mixture in which one substance is dispersed throughout another after being broken down into very small pieces (the “colloidal particles”). Despite being larger than the particles in the solution, they are still too small to be seen with the naked eye.

Colloidal particles can have any size from \({10^9}m\;to\;{10^6}m\) , but typically fall into that range. There are two ways to get colloids ready for use: dispersion or condensation.

Examples of Colloids

Here are several examples of colloids:

• Solid Sols- Pearl, some alloys, gemstones, etc.
• Gels- Gelatin, jelly, etc.
• Aerosols- Fog, clouds, dust, etc.
• Solid Foams- Marshmallows, Styrofoam, etc.
• Emulsions- Milk, lotion, etc.
• Foams- whipped cream, shaving cream, etc.
• Sols- Ink, shampoo, etc.

Classification of Colloids:

Based on Physical State

We can divide colloids into 8 groups:

• Foam
• Emulsion
• Solid aerosol
• Gel
• Solid sol
• Solid foam
• Aerosol
• Sol

Based on Interaction Forces

Lyophilic colloids

Solutions have a colloidal particle size in which the particles of the dispersion phase are evenly distributed and exhibit a high attraction for the dispersed phase known as lyophilic colloids. These sols are quite stable and do not coagulate quickly. Gums, and proteins, along with other lyophilic colloids, are examples.

Lyophobic colloids

Colloidal solutions wherein the dispersed medium particles have no attraction to the dispersion medium are known as lyophobic colloids. For the sake of preservation, these sols require some stabilizing chemicals.

Classification Based on Properties of Sol Particle

Multi Molecular Colloids

When a substance disintegrates, atoms/ molecules clump together to produce colloidal particles. Multimolecular colloids are the particles that result from this process.

Macromolecular Colloids

These are macromolecular colloids, which are macromolecular substances with large molecular sizes that, when broken down, generate a size in the colloids. As a result, the macromolecules that make up the dispersed phase are usually polymers with extremely high molecular weights.

 Based on Dispersion Medium

It can be categorized into four categories based on the dispersion medium:

Preparation of Colloid Solutions:

Condensation method

•  By exchange of solvent,  An S or P solution in alcohol is emptied into \({{\bf{H}}_2}{\bf{O}}\) to form a colloid of  S or P due to its limited water solubility.
•  By change of physical state S or Hg, for example, can be turned into colloidal solutions by transporting their vapours through a stabiliser-laced cold water
• Chemical Methods: Double decomposition: To make \(A{s_2}S\) sol, a constant stream of  \({{\bf{H}}_2}{\bf{S}}\)  gas is fed through such a freezing solution of \(A{s_2}{O_3}\) . This process is continued until the sol’s yellow colour reaches its maximal intensity.
• Oxidation: When \({{\bf{H}}_2}{\bf{S}}\) is passed through \({\bf{S}}{{\bf{O}}_2}\) solution, it forms a colloidal solution.
• \({\bf{2}}{{\bf{H}}_2}{\bf{S}} + {\bf{S}}{{\bf{O}}_2} \to \;{\bf{2}}{{\bf{H}}_2}{\bf{O}} + {\bf{3S}}\)     
•  By excessive cooling:  By freezing a water solution in an organic solvent such as ether/\(CHC{l_3}\), a colloidal ice solution can be created. 

Dispersion Methods

Mechanical dispersion

A colloidal mill is used to grind the solid and liquid together. The colloidal mill is made up of two steel plates that are closely touching and revolving at high speeds in opposite directions. This process is used to create colloidal graphite and printing inks.

Bredig’s Arc Method

Colloids of metals such as gold, platinum, as well as silver can be made using this method. Under the surface of the water with a stabilizing substance, such as a little amount of alkali, an arc is produced between metal electrodes.

Peptisation 

Peptisation is the activity of an electrolyte in a solution to disperse a precipitated substance into a colloidal solution. A peptizing agent is an electrolyte employed.

Purification of Colloids:

Dialysis:

The principle behind dialysis is that colloidal particles cannot flow through parchment or cellophane membranes, but electrolyte ions may. Dialysis is the technique of removing colloidal particles from contaminants by diffusing them through a suitable membrane.

Electro-dialysis:

When an electric field is created between the electrodes, the ions in the electrolyte that are present as impurities diffuse rapidly approaching oppositely charged electrodes. The electric field is needed for this.

Ultrafiltration:

The pores of typical filter paper are large enough to allow both impurities and colloidal particles to pass through. Ultrafilters are the resultant filter sheets. Ultrafiltration is the process of filtering through ultrafilters.

Commercial Applications of Colloid

In pharmacy:

Because colloidal drugs are easily absorbed by biological tissues, they are much more efficacious.

 In environment:

Purification of water: Some electrolytes, like alum, can be employed to precipitate colloidal pollutants in water.

 In industrial products:

Rubber industry: Latex is made up of negatively charged rubber particles suspended in a colloidal fluid. Rubber can be made from latex via coagulation.

In the field of defence:

Colloids are employed in defence in the form of smoke in smoke screens to disguise anything in the military. Colloids are employed in rocket technology. A colloid thruster is used in rockets.

Summary

Colloids, then, are a type of mixture in which one component is spread throughout another substance after being broken down into extremely small particles. Colloidal solutions contain particles of sizes between 1 nanometer and 500 nanometers, which are in between those of a real solution and those of a pure solution. It is typically categorised as a 2-phase, heterogeneous/homogeneous system, depending on the conditions. Colloids are dispersed mixtures in which the suspended particles do not sink to the bottom.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is Ultracentrifugation?

Ans. It is the process of using centrifugal force to separate colloidal particles from contaminants. The impure sol is collected in a tube, which is then placed in an ultracentrifuge.

2. Why are the colligative properties of colloids of low order?

Ans. Because colloidal particles are larger aggregates, the particles in colloids are smaller than in a true solution. As a result, when compared to true solution values at similar proportions, measurements of colligative qualities are of low order.

3. What is the Tyndall effect?

Ans. The Tyndall effect confirms the colloidal solution’s heterogeneous character. As light travels through a sol, it is scattered by particles, revealing its route and called the Tyndall effect.

Introduction

The term “food chemistry” is used to describe the study of the chemical reactions that take place in the preparation and consumption of food. The composition and functional qualities of foods and food products at different stages are the primary areas of study. While food supplies important elements such proteins, carbs, fats, vitamins, lipids, and minerals. The right nutrients should be included in the diet. Plants and animals are both examples of sources that can be used to create food. Because of the biochemical process it triggers in the body, this food is a rich source of fuel. Sugar, a simple type of carbohydrates, is converted into energy during respiration. Response as follows:

Enzymes and preservatives like flavours, food additives, and colours are also found in food. Manufacturers add preservatives and create new food variations to extend the shelf life of these products. Preservatives extend the shelf life of food without adding any nutritional value, similar to how milk is transformed by fermentation or enzymatic action into curd and cheese. Because of this, food science and chemistry have a positive effect on a wide range of aspects, including:

• Techniques for enhancing food’s shelf-life and avoiding the activity of microbes. 
• Methods for food processing and avoiding food deterioration. 
• Most importantly, food safety and quality enhancer methods.

What is Food Chemistry?

It alludes to the chemical composition of the meal and all of the interactions it has with the body and the environment. Chemical composition, how it is altered by cooking, and how it reacts with the human body are all topics covered. Proteins, carbs, and lipids can all be found in their purest forms in biological items like milk, meat, lettuce, poultry, and so on. Hence, food chemistry is concerned with all modifications made to foods and the improvement of their quality through various methods of food processing.

Chemical in Food

What do Food Chemists do?

A good food chemist should know the science behind food and its application. 

1. He should be able to develop improved food and beverages. 
2. He should be able to analyse methods like canning, heat processing, freezing, and packaging. 
3. He must be aware of the effects of processing on the taste, appearance, freshness, aroma, and vitamin and mineral content of food.

Components of Food

The main component is the necessary diet that is required in a large amount by the body. 

Different Chemicals in Food

The other components or chemicals of food help in various functions of the body and their small quantities are enough.

Other chemicals listed below as preservatives added to food are unhealthy.

Food Components Can Be Broadly Differentiated Into Two Categories.

The food components are divided into two categories: Macronutrients and Micronutrients.

Summary

To learn about the science behind the components of food and their qualities, one must study food chemistry, a large field. It goes through every conceivable structural and molecular shift. A food chemist can oversee these modifications to ensure they don’t compromise the food’s safety or nutritional value in any way. In order for the body to develop and function normally, it need a diet that is both varied and complete.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Why are preservatives bad for food?

Ans: Some chemicals (present in preservatives) can cause toxic effects like kidney damage, liver disease, DNA damage or impairment of the nervous system, and gastrointestinal symptoms. 

2. What is an alternative for no chemical food?

Ans: Organic food is an alternative, since it has no chemicals  like pesticides or artificial fertilisers. 

3. Why does organic foods spoil faster?

Ans: Organic food is healthy as they are not treated with preservatives or waxes. Therefore, due to the absence of chemicals or preservatives, the shelf life of food decreases and spoils the food at a faster rate. 

Introduction

What happens to a food’s composition, chemistry, and physics while it’s prepared for storage and later consumed is the focus of food chemistry. Recent decades have seen significant expansion in the field of food chemistry. The science of food chemistry investigates the chemical and physical changes that occur in food over time.

The study of compounds used for food preservation through additives is also a part of this field of study. Maleic acid was initially extracted from apples by scientist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in the early 17th century. Then, for ages, scientists have explored food chemistry, searching for new additives and preservatives to boost food quality.

What is Food Chemistry?

The study of foods and their non-living and living constituents is the focus of food chemistry, a scientific discipline in the field of food science. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, flavouring compounds, food additives, etc. are all areas where it crosses with biochemistry.

In addition to fats, proteins, and carbs, water is a crucial aspect of every balanced diet.

It discusses the components of food in terms of their content, structure, and physical and chemical qualities. 

In 1950, numerous scientists sought to uncover the root of food additives to combat food contamination. Chemical and physical thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, biopolymer science, colloidal interaction, etc. all contribute to the overarching concept of food chemistry.

Examples of Food Chemistry

Food chemistry is seen in day to day life. Some of the examples are:

• The fermentation of milk, or the creation of curd, and the use of lemon juice to keep apples from browning provide useful analogies.
• In order to determine whether or not a food is safe to eat, food chemists analyse its chemical components. It extends the shelf life of food and is utilised in the preservation process.
• Natural chemicals and enzymes are employed extensively in the food industry to create novel products, such as yeast’s application in baking and lactobacillus’ application in the production of curd from milk.
• Sodium nitrate and vinegar (acetic acid) are just two of the many substances found to extend the shelf life of pickles and other foods.
• Preservatives and other food additives are used to extend the shelf life of fruit juices.

Components of Food

Water is the primary component of most of the foods we eat, however the amount varies widely. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are also important parts of a balanced diet. Minerals, vitamins, enzymes, etc., are examples of foods’ ancillary components.

Water: 

Depending on the cuisine, the amount of water in it might range between 40-95%. In the processes of emulsification, freezing, baking, and gel formation, water plays a critical role.

Proteins: 

Amino acids form complicated proteins. These amino acids rebuild bones, muscles, and skin. 50% of a live cell weighs these. It’s required for body growth, hence food contains it. Legumes, grains, beans, peanuts, meat, fish, milk products, and soya milk contain it. Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen comprise a protein molecule. Food sources provide eight important amino acids. Leucine, valine, tryptophan, tyrosine, lysine, methionine, isoleucine, and phenylalanine.

Carbohydrate: 

Carbohydrates are organic compounds found in many food components like sugar, starch, dextrins, Celluloses, pectins, etc. These are the main source of energy. The carbohydrates are of three types:

1. Monosaccharides,: Glucose, Fructose
2. Disaccharides: Sucrose
3. Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, etc, 

Lipids: 

Food contains oils, fatty acids, and steroids from grains, animal fats, milk products, soybeans, meat, waxes, etc. These are water-insoluble, non-polar dietary compounds that boost energy. Cell membranes need it to store energy.

Vitamins: 

Vitamins are required in a very small amount in our body. These are essential for various metabolic activities of the body. Examples of vitamins are: 

1. Water-Soluble: Vitamin-B (Thiamine, Riboflavin, Niacin, Biotin, Pantothenic Acid, Folic Acid), and Vitamin-C (Ascorbic acid).
2. Fat-Soluble: Vitamin-A, Vitamin-D, Vitamin-E, And Vitamin-K.

Minerals: 

Minerals are also crucial to our health and are found in many different foods. Excessive use can be harmful to health, thus only a modest amount is needed. Calcium, magnesium, potassium, copper, iron, and zinc are all examples of minerals that play an important role in human health.

Structure 

Let’s understand food components by their structure.

Carbohydrates: A single carbohydrate molecule is calles a monosaccharide, while two or more carbohydrate molecules are called disaccharide and polysaccharide. 

Carbohydrates

Proteins: Proteins are the chain of amino acids bonded by the peptide bond between the amino group and the carboxylic group. 

Lipids: Lipids are of two types saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Triglycerides are formed by one molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids. In the reaction, the R, R’, R” are the chains of 10 to 20 carbon. 

Summary 

Food chemistry is the study of the chemical and physical modifications made to foods and their constituents. Additives, preservatives, flavouring agents, enzymes, minerals, and vitamins are now included included in the field of food science. Carbohydrates make up a sizable portion of the food we eat.

Some of the most important vitamins for our bodies are carried by lipids, which are present in oil cereals, meat, milk, and dairy products.

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. How is a mixture of oil and water stabilized in food chemistry?

Ans. Emulsifiers are the chemical components used for mixing two food containing oil and water. One of the natural emulsifiers is Lecithin found in egg yolk and plant tissues which are used to make mayonnaise and salad dressings. 

2. What is the importance of phosphorus?

Ans. Phosphorus is an important macro mineral in our body, it is found in many foods like fats from animal meat, fish, egg, and milk. It is important for DNA and RNa production.

3. What is aromatic food?

Ans. Aromatics are vegetables, herbs, and spices that add aroma and flavor to dishes. They consist of mainly phenols.

Introduction

Mankind has only recently begun to utilise fluorine. Materials containing fluorine were infrequently used in antiquity. Smelting fluorite was an economic focus for Georgius Agricola, who investigated its application in the 16th century. Both the word “fluorite” and “fluorine” were created by Agricola. In the later part of the 18th century, hydrofluoric acid was uncovered. Much like chlorine, fluorine was discovered to be bound in compounds in the nineteenth century. Calcium fluoride, or fluorite, is a mineral that can be discovered. Fluorine is difficult to separate because of its strong bonds and the toxicity of hydrogen fluoride. Electrolysis of potassium fluoride and hydrogen fluoride produced elemental fluorine in 1886, and the discovery was made by French chemist and Nobel laureate Henri Moissan. During World War 2, massive amounts of fluorine were produced and utilised by the Manhattan Project. Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) plastic and refrigerant gases were both developed by DuPont this century (Freon).

What is Fluorine?

Gaseous halogen the element fluorine can be found in the 17th group of the periodic chart. The element has an atomic number of 9. One of fluorine’s defining characteristics is that it is the most electronegative element in the periodic table. Under normal conditions, it presents as a pale yellow diatomic gas that is highly toxic. At 3.98 on the Pauling scale, fluorine has the highest electronegativity of any element.

Electron Configuration And Chemical Properties of Fluorine

The gas fluorine, which belongs to the 17th group, has an atomic number of 9. The halogen nature of fluorine gives it a valency of one. Due to its one electron deficit, it accepts electrons from other substances. They accept electrons, making these compounds oxidising agents. Don’t forget that electron donors always act as reducing agents and electron acceptors as oxidising ones. Because of its high electronegativity, fluorine is the most powerful oxidising agent among the halogens. An electrical configuration of 1s22s22p5 describes fluorine.

Fluorine 

Properties of Fluorine

Fluorine shows different physical and chemical properties. 

Chemical Properties of Fluorine

• Fluorine is one of the most powerful oxidising agents since it is a strongly electronegative element. According to the Pauling scale, fluorine has an electronegativity of 3.98.
•  The strong force of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons caused by their small size results in a very high energy requirement to extract an electron. Fluorine has an initial ionisation energy of 1680.6 KJ/Mol. Thus, it takes 1680.6 KJ of energy to remove an electron from a mole of fluorine. 
• Fluorine has a standard potential of 2.87 V. Compared to all other factors, this is the highest. 
• There is only one stable isotope of fluorine, which is fluorine 19.

Physical properties of Fluorine

• Fluorine is the lightest of all the halogens, with an estimated atomic mass of 19 particles. 
• In its natural state, fluorine can be found as a gas. It is a light gas with a pale-yellow colour. 
• Fluorine has a boiling point of -188° C and a melting point of 219.6° C.

The Atomic Radius of Fluorine

The atomic radius of fluorine, a very small element, is extremely small. A fluorine atom has a very strong nuclear force because of this. The smallest halogen atom is fluorine, which has an atomic radius of only 147 pm.

What is the Atomic Mass of Fluorine?

The lightest halogen gas, fluorine, weighs only 19 amu; specifically, it is 18.99 amu. Conventionally, we round it off and count it as 19.

Fun Facts About Fluorine

• In the crust of the earth, fluorine is the 13th most abundant element.
• Fluorine is a very reactive element that is never discovered in its pure form. It is always present in some combination with another element.
• Water can be burned by fluorine with a brilliant blaze.
• Fluorine can also be found in the earth’s crust in addition to the air. Coal and other elements contain fluorine in trace amounts. 
• Fluorine is nearly non-existent in the air. 50 parts per billion roughly. Before the Second World War, fluorine was not well recognised in the business.
• Fluorine hadn’t been produced commercially until that point. Everyone just understood fluorine as an element that can combine to form salts. Uranium hexafluoride, however, was discovered to have nuclear capabilities and be a source of energy during World War 2. Fluorine has since been produced industrially at an exponential rate. 
• Animals require ion fluoride, which helps to strengthen their teeth and bones. In some places, it is added to drinking water. 

Summary

Fluorine is one of the halogen family members in the periodic table. Fluorine exists as yellow gas having an unpleasant smell when it is at room temperature. It is harmful to breathe in the gas. Fluorine becomes a yellow liquid when it cools. Fluorine-19 is the only stable isotope of the substance. The most significant source of fluorine is fluorspar.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the principle sources of Fluorine?

Ans: The principal source mineral, fluorite, was originally reported in 1529 by Georgius Agricola, known as the “father of mineralogy,” and the word “fluorine” is derived from this Latin stem. Fluorite, according to him, is an addition known as a flux that aids in melting ores and slags during smelting.

2. Why is Fluorine so important?

Ans: Our bones’ ability to remain firm depends on fluorine. If we use fluoridated toothpaste twice a day, it can also prevent tooth decay. Too much fluorine absorption can affect the kidneys, bones, nerves, and muscles in addition to causing osteoporosis and tooth decay.

3. What are the safety precautions for handling fluorine?

Ans: Use and store fluorine in a ventilated gas cabinet or fume hood. When a gas cabinet is warranted (e.g., cylinders larger than lecture bottle size that are used in a fume hood), install a fluorine gas monitoring system. Follow all applicable recommendations for storage and handling of compressed gases.

Introduction

The chemical symbol for flerovium is Fl, and the atomic number of flerovium is 114. Super heavy describes this element’s status as one of the heaviest in the periodic table.

It’s also a highly radioactive substance or component. It wasn’t until 1998, in a Russian research facility, that this element was found.

The p-block is represented by elements in the periodic table by those in group 14, period 7. In its electronic form, flerovium has the formula\(\left[ {{\bf{Rn}}} \right]{\rm{ }}{\bf{5}}{{\bf{f}}^{14}}{\bf{6}}{{\bf{d}}^{10}}{\bf{7}}{{\bf{s}}^2}{\bf{7}}{{\bf{p}}^2}\). Since it is the most massive element in the carbon (C) family, it is a member of that family. Its radioactivity means that only a little amount of this element may ever be produced.

What is Flerovium?

With an atomic number of 114 and the symbol, flerovium is one of the heaviest known elements (Fl). To be specific, this element belongs to the p-block. It is part of period 7 and the 14th group. Then it must be one of the elements of the carbon group. It’s also the heaviest member of the carbon family. As a man-made substance, it is also highly (very) radioactive (does not occur naturally on the surface of the earth).

At the time of its discovery in 1998, the element was given the name flerovium in honour of the flerov laboratory of nuclear reactions in Dubna, Russia (Asia). However, over time, the name was changed to the flerov to honour the Russian physicist Georgy Flyorov. According to estimates, its mass will be 289.

How Scientists Discovered Flerovium Elements?

In 1998, researchers at Russia’s Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna successfully synthesised flerovium. They pounded plutonium atoms with calcium ions.

One atom of flerovium-289, an isotope with a half-life of around 21 seconds, was created in this process.

What are the Uses of Flerovium?

Due to it being the heaviest element and the radioactive, Flerovium has very few applications. This substance has zero practical applications outside of academic institutions. No biological function is served by it Its formation in nuclear reactors is possible. Very few flerovium atoms have been created or identified so far. Because of its hazardous properties, it is also not used in commercial applications (as it is a radioactive element).

Flerovium Chemical Properties

• Flerovium is the bulky member present in group 14 elements found below lead.
• The chemical behaviour of the element is expected to be very distinctive.
• The 7s orbitals (s, p, d, f…) are very (largely) highly (more) stabilized (stable) in flerovium, therefore a very large \(s{p^3}\) (type) orbital (orbits) hybridization is needed to achieve a +4-oxidation state (O.S.).
• Flerovium is predicted to be more stable (most) than lead (Pb) in its +2-oxidation state while at a +4 (O.S.)-oxidation state it should be highly (very much) unstable.

Physical Properties of Flerovium

Some of the physical properties of Flerovium element are as follows-

• Appearance- Liquid phase at STP (predicted)
• Melting Point (M.P.)- It has a melting point of around 200K or -73 °C or -100 °F.
• Boiling Point (B.P.)- It has a boiling point of around 380K or 107 °C or 224°F.
• Density- It has a density of approximately 9.928 \(g/c{m^3}\).
• Crystal Structure- Flerovium has a face-centred cubic lattice type.

General Properties of The Fl Element

Flerovium is a rarely used heavy material. Its atomic number is 114 and the molar mass is predicted to be 289. It is denoted or represented by the symbol Fl. It is a carbon group element that lies in the p-block of the periodic table. Its colour is predicted (assumed) to be silvery-white, grey, or metallic. Sometimes it is also known as Ununquadio. Flerovium is a radioactive synthetic element with five known isotopes so far. 

Fun Facts About the Fl Element 

• Flerovium is considered a metal due to its high density and it is an extremely radioactive metal.
• This metal or element can be rarely produced in nuclear reactors.
• Its production is very expensive.
• It is obtained by bombarding plutonium ions and calcium.
• It is a p-block element present in the carbon group.

Summary

Flerovium represented or denoted by the symbol (Fl) is one of the heaviest known elements with the atomic number (Z) 114. It is a p-block element. It lies in group 14 and period 7. That means it is a carbon group element. And it is the heavier element in the carbon group and the p-block. It is also an extremely (very much) radioactive man-made element (does not occur naturally on the surface of the earth). At the time of discovery, it was named after (the place where it was produced) flerov laboratory (lab) of nuclear reactions located in Dubna, a place in Russia, where this element (metal) was produced (discovered) in the year 1998. Element is produced by bombarding a target (aim) of plutonium-244 (\(Pu_{94}^{244}\)) with the nuclei (accelerated) of calcium (\(Ca_{20}^{48}\)):

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. How many isotopes of Flerovium are known?

Ans: Flerovium has seven known isotopes, and possibly 2 nuclear isomers. The longest-lived isotope is \({}^{289}Fl\) with a half-life of 1.9 seconds, but the unconfirmed \({}^{290}Fl\) may have a longer half-life of 19 seconds.

2. Who discovered flerovium and when?

Ans: A team of scientists from JINR (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research), located in Dubna, a place in Russia discovered the flerovium (element) in the year 1998.

3. Write the reaction involved in the formation of flerovium.

Ans: The reaction involved in the formation of flerovium is –