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Introduction

An immune system is a very essential system of the human body that helps protect one’s self against various harmful materials. The immune system not only fights the antigen upon invasion but also identifies the invader and retains its memory. An allergy is when a person’s immune system reacts adversely to harmless substances such as dust, pollen, any specific edible item, etc. Autoimmune disease on the other hand is a condition wherein a person’s immune system unintentionally targets his/her own cells and tissues.

Allergy

Allergy is the body’s response to common, completely harmless environmental elements that pose no threat to the majority of people. Allergens are the chemicals that cause allergies. People constantly come into contact with the environment, which exposes them to allergens such pollen, dust mites, animal fur, mildew, and insect venom.

While many people lead normal lives, some people experience negative side effects after being exposed to certain substances.

Allergic responses can be-

• A minor allergic reaction- It may only affect one area of the body that has been exposed to an allergen.
• A moderate allergic reaction-If the allergen spreads and affects nearby body parts then it is a moderate allergic reaction.
• A severe allergic reaction- If a sudden, life-threatening ailment develops, then it is a severe allergic reaction.

Symptoms of allergy

Based on the allergen and the site of exposure, an allergy can result in a variety of reactions, some of which are described below as frequent ones.

• Red and inflamed eyes, itching
• Sniffling and a runny nose
• Hives or skin rashes
• Swelling of the lips and mouth
• Itchiness in the mouth,
• Persistent cough
• Inability to breathe
• Chest constriction,
• Vomiting and nauseous
• Diarrhea
• Headaches

Symptoms of allergies

Autoimmunity 

Autoimmunity is the immune system’s reaction against oneself and healthy cells, which causes organ failure or damage along with significant physiological changes. The immune system of the human body triggers an immunological reaction to any foreign substances (antigens) that may be capable of causing disease. White blood cells  fight the antigen directly or indirectly create antibodies against it and protect the body.

In autoimmunity the  individuals make autoantibodies which attract the  autoantigens or healthy tissues and organs of the individual’s body and lead to various kinds of autoimmune diseases. Although the specific causes of some autoimmune diseases are unknown, genetic and environmental factors are being researched as potential contributors.

Types of autoimmune diseases

Based on the areas where the autoimmune attack occurs, two types of autoimmune diseases exist they are-

Organ-specific autoimmune disorders:

• As the name implies, the immune system only targets a particular organ or tissue and autoantibodies are focused on that particular organ.
• Examples include Grave’s disease and Hashimoto’s disease, both of which affect the thyroid gland and cause it to malfunction.
• White patches of skin are a symptom of the autoimmune disease vitiligo, which affects just the skin since the melanocytes that produce colour are the target cells for the autoantibodies.
• Addison’s disease develops when the adrenal cortex is attacked by self immune system.

Systemic autoimmune disorders:

• The impacts of systemic autoimmune diseases are extensive, causing many tissue damages  in numerous organs.
• Examples include Systemic lupus erythematosus, which causes inflammation, tissue damage, and tiredness in the joints, kidneys, brain, lungs, skin, and blood vessels
• The damage to the articular cartilage that lines the elbows, shoulders, knees, and hips is known as rheumatoid arthritis and is one of example of autoimmune disease

Symptoms of autoimmune diseases

The symptoms of autoimmune disease vary depending on the organ affected.It  affects the organ’s physiology and functionality both. The following is a list of the common signs of autoimmunity.

• Fatigue
• Muscle aches
• Aching and swollen joints
• Recurrent mild fever
• Skin irritation
• Legs and hands are numb

Difference between Allergies and Autoimmunity 

Summary 

Humans are endowed with a powerful immune system that can recognise and eliminate potentially dangerous chemicals from the body. The battle goes beyond mere eradication; it also records the antigen in the body’s memory, making it capable of withstanding future attacks. The immune system’s effectiveness can be compromised by autoimmune and allergic illnesses. Immune reactions are triggered in allergic people by ordinary items that are typically harmless. When the body targets its own tissues and organs thinking they are foreign objects it leads to autoimmune diseases .

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is Anaphylaxis?

Ans: An unexpected emergency known as anaphylaxis can cause due to an allergen and lead to severe throat swelling, eye irritation, breathing and swallowing difficulties etc.

Due to a quick reduction in blood pressure, some persons under an  anaphylactic attack feel dizzy.

2. How are allergies identified?

Ans: A skin test and blood test are used to diagnose allergies. An allergen drop is applied to the skin and pricked softly to perform a skin prick test. A blood test counts all IgE antibodies produced in response to a specific antigen.

3. What effect do immunosuppressants have on autoimmune disease patients?

Ans: An immune reaction against self-tissues is elicited by an overreacting immune system in an autoimmune disease patient. Immunosuppressants lower the body’s immunological response, but they can have negative side effects include a higher risk of infection.

Introduction: Evolution

It was once thought that all life forms on earth were created exactly as they are now. Some people believed that the earth’s living things originated on another planet and were then brought here. Many outdated preconceptions were swept aside by the idea and theory of evolution. According to the concept of evolution, all complex species descended from a single, primordial ancestor, from which they evolved by a series of small, progressive changes in response to the environment.

This shift is a gradual process that has occurred, is occurring, and will continue to occur. This is due to the fact that living things adapt to their ever-changing circumstances and develop characteristics that are essential to their survival.

Such a slow and gradual process that resulted in the occurrence of new traits within a population and gave rise to new species is called evolution. Evolution is fueled by a variety of processes, including gene mutations, genetic drift, gene flow, non-random mating, and natural selection. After hundreds of years of evolution, new life forms that outnumber some species are created that are better suited for survival. 

Is Evolution a Random Process?

The creatures experience genetic alterations, which show up in their physical characteristics. Individuals with acquired genetic qualities outlive their contemporaries more successfully than those without them. Over time, acquired physical traits are passed on to the following generations. In order to survive, an individual must obtain food and stay away from predators.  Although evolution is a gradual process, the factors like genetic drift and mutation that contribute to mutation are random.

Factors Contributing to Evolution

Mutation

Changes at the DNA level, such as mutations and recombinations, produce new alleles, which are then thought of as the cause of novel phenotypic traits. These alleles are spread throughout a population through breeding and are only passable through sexual chromosomal alterations. These hereditary traits and acquired traits develop through breeding generations to become distinctive characteristics of that particular group. The population finally diverges in various ways from its ancestor. Those lacking inherent adaptive characteristics fade away when faced with unfavorable conditions. While those with adaptable traits pass them on to their offspring and grow in number. Evolution is influenced by mutations in this way. Some mutations are detrimental and dangerous because they interfere with an organism’s ability to survive. During development, this can result in lethal circumstances. Additionally, since genetic mutations are unpredictable, they cannot be the only force behind the extensive process of evolution.

Mutation and selection

Genetic Drift

There may occasionally be abrupt and arbitrary shifts in allele frequencies within a small population. Regardless of the benefits or drawbacks of a given allele, it may even result in its eradication. Genetic drift is the term for the haphazard evolution that occurs in small populations as a result of variations in allele frequency. Despite the fact that it can happen in huge populations, its effects on evolution are best seen in small groups. For instance, a population that recently experienced a natural disaster that significantly reduced its size experiences genetic drift. It might result in the eradication of a certain allele from the population. Genetic drift, however, occurs by chance.

Natural selection

Natural selection is a purely selective process in which those with superior features earn the capacity to survive. The survival of any population and its propagation greatly depends on its interaction with the environment, regardless of how much a mutation or genetic drift contributes to a physical change. Every individual in a population goes through a serious struggle just to survive. New characteristics that are necessary for an individual’s survival are preserved by natural selection. It facilitates the selection of advantageous features required for better environmental adaptability of organisms. Individuals who possess positive attributes tend to reproduce more frequently. In this approach, unfavorable features gradually become less prevalent across the board due to natural selection. Due to this, evolution appears to be a more deliberate process than a sudden and haphazard one.

Are evolution and “survival of the fittest” the same thing?

Natural selection operates through a mechanism known as “survival of the fittest.” In his postulates, Charles Darwin claimed that people compete with one another in order to survive. He described it as a struggle for survival.  Individuals within a species or between species may compete for food, territory, water, light, and mates (in cases of sexual reproduction).  Only those who are capable enough can withstand this competition and live. Darwin claimed that only those who are “fit” enough can “survive,” in other words.

The survival of the fittest is not the same as evolution, which is a more general concept. According to the theory of survival of the fittest, those with desirable traits can pass those traits down to future generations while eradicating the population’s bad features. In order to speciate (create new species), evolution demands that the strongest individuals overwhelm the weaker ones.

Summary 

The evolution of all living species on earth has been gradual and slow. Several factors, including gene mutations, genetic drift, and natural selection, support it. Physical characteristics are acquired as a result of genetic diversity. Darwin claimed that there is fierce competition between members of the same species or distinct species for resources including food, water, space, light, and mate. Those who are physically capable can survive. Fitness has less to do with physical fitness and more to do with an organism’s capacity to prosper in its environment. A species doesn’t just appear; it takes millions of year.

 

Frequently Asked Questions  

1. What is the meaning of macroevolution and microevolution? 

Ans: Evolution is a change in an organism’s genetic makeup that leads to some degree of speciation. The naked eye cannot see changes in DNA sequences or allele frequencies. It’s known as microevolution. Larger changes in physical features and consequently performance, combined with other factors like natural selection, result from changes in genetic makeup, leading to the emergence of new species. It’s known as macroevolution.

2. Is there any relation existing between the species surviving in this world?

Ans: Earth’s species share a common ancestor. By passing features down from one generation to the next and repeatedly splitting from the original species, species evolved from a common ancestor over millions of years. This develops over many generations and creates new species that are completely distinct from their ancestor.

3. How can understanding anatomy help in understanding evolution?  

Ans: In order to understand the lineages, scientists examine the physical characteristics of living species and contrast them with those of extinct species. Tracing the changes in an anatomical feature over the years helps to understand the probable changes that must have occurred in the environment through the years that forced the changes that have occurred.

Introduction

The chemical symbol for barium chloride is (\(BaC{l_2}\)). It has the appearance of a white salt but is actually an inorganic chemical complex. It gives flames a yellowish-green colour and emits poisonous fumes. It readily absorbs or absorbs water molecules, and may thus cling onto them. As a rule, it dissolves more readily or more easily in water. There is only cautious usage of it in labs and factories due to its toxicity. It has no discernible odour or hue in its pure form. 

What is Barium Chloride (\(BaC{l_2}\))?

The empirical formula for barium chloride is \(BaC{l_2}\). The only solvents that work on it are water and methanol, whereas ethanol and ethyl acetate have no effect. To purify the salt water used in caustic chlorine production plants. Sometimes, it is used in the manufacturing of heat treatment salts, which are used in the process of hardening steel.

Its extreme toxicity is shared by the majority of other barium salts that dissolve in water. It changes the colour of a flame to a bright yellow-green. Its molar mass, or molecular weight, is 208.23 g/mol in its anhydrous form and 244.26 g/mol in its dihydrate form (in dehydrated form). About 3.856 g/cm3 is its density. Barium chloride may be dissolved in the methanol, but not the ethanol or the ethyl acetate. When it is dehydrated, it takes on a shape that is similar to an orthogonal structure.

Structure of Barium Chloride \(BaC{l_2}\)

The anhydrous form of barium chloride has a crystal structure that is orthorhombic, while the dehydrated or monoclinic form is extremely unusual. Barium chloride (\(BaC{l_2}\)) is the ionic compound of  \(B{a^{2 + }}\) cations and \(2C{l^{-}}\)

anions. 

Barium chloride

Preparation of Barium Chloride

Following is the possible methods for the preparation of Barium Chloride (\(BaC{l_2}\))-

Barium sulphate is reacted at high temperature with coke to give barium sulphide.  

The barium Sulphide is further reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid as follows:

Properties of Barium Chloride \(BaC{l_2}\)

Some of Barium Chloride’s most fundamental characteristics are as follows:

• it takes the form of a white solid, although it can also take the form of a white salt
• Barium chloride has a melting point of about 960 °C.
• It dissolves in water and methanol but not in ethanol or ethyl acetate (EtOAc)
• Barium chloride’s molecular weight is 208.23 g/mol (for the anhydrous form) and 244.26 g/mol (for the dihydrate form) (in dehydrated form).
• The density of barium chloride is approximately 3.856 g/\(c{m^2}\) (in anhydrous form)..
• Barium chloride has a boiling point of roughly 1560 °C.

Uses of Barium Chloride \(BaC{l_2}\)

1. For the most part, barium chloride is used in caustic chlorine factories to remove impurities from brine solutions.
2. It is employed when carbon steel has to be hardened.
3. In addition, it is used in water purification.
4. The production of barium chromate, oil lubricants, and similar products all benefit from its presence.
5. Purification and the production of salts for thermal processing are two further applications.
6. In addition, it is crucial to the creation of some barium salts and a few dyes.
7. It may also be used to detect sulphate ions in a sample.
8. In the fireworks industry, it’s used to make the crackers a vivid yellow-green colour.

Chemical and Physical Properties

Chemical Properties

When we mix a solution of barium chloride with sodium sulphate, we get a twofold substitution reaction. A white precipitate, consisting of barium sulphate, will appear at the bottom of a test tube after the reaction. The diagram below illustrates the ionic reaction formed by this reaction.

The binary chlorine salt barium chloride readily interacts with water, as is well known. It forms NaCl-like ions when it dissolves in water. It doesn’t have any effect on the solution’s pH because of its neutral behaviour. The following is a response to that:

Physical Properties

• As stated in this article, Barium Chloride (\(BaC{l_2}\)) has an orthogonal crystal structure when anhydrous and a monoclinic structure when dihydrate or dehydrated.
• It has a white crystal-like appearance and a molecular weight of 208.23 g/mol (anhydrous) and 244.26 g/mol (hydrous) (in dehydrated form). The anhydrous form has 3.856 g/ml density, whereas the dehydrated form has 3.098. It melts at 963 °C and boils at 1560 °C.
• Barium chloride dissolves well in water and methanol but not in ethanol or ethyl acetate.

Health Hazards Caused due to Barium Chloride

Barium Chloride’s main health risks are:

• Barium chloride’s high toxicity limits its application in industry and labs.
• Barium chloride’s toxicity causes eye, skin, and mucous membrane irritation.
• Inhaling, swallowing, touching, or absorbing it might cause unconsciousness.
• Poisonous barium chloride can damage the kidneys, heart, and brain.
• Aquatic life is at risk.

Summary

Barium chloride (\(BaC{l_2}\)), an inorganic chemical compound, is a white solid or salt. Like barium salts, it is very poisonous. Water and methanol solubility.

It becomes yellow-green towards the flame. We then covered industrial or commercial barium chloride structure and processing. Its many uses include brine or saltwater purification, wastewater treatment, steel case hardening, and more. Finally, we addressed Barium chloride’s physical and chemical features and health risks.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Is barium harmful to ecosystems?

Very little of these chemicals are preserved in this form after being released into the environment. Insoluble barium compounds have a longer lifetime in the environment and are usually harmless. The two most frequent forms of barium in nature are barium sulphate and barium carbonate, both of which are present in both soil and water.

2. Can barium be inhaled without risk?

A tiny amount of barium sulphate is safe for the lungs to absorb. Barium sulphate can disrupt pulmonary ventilation and perfusion, leading to symptoms including dyspnea, hypoxemia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and mortality if an excessive amount is inhaled or ingested.

3. As an electrolyte, why is \(BaC{l_2}\) so powerful?

\(BaC{l_2}\) is an ionic chemical that dissociates in water to produce ions and conduct electricity. Ionic bonding produces this salt. When electrons are shared between two atoms, an ionic connection forms.

Also Read this article on Barium Carbonate

Introduction

Molecular formula of barium carbonate This substance belongs to the class of inorganic chemicals. This has no aroma or flavour at all. It is a white salt that, like most other alkaline earth metal carbonates, is weak bases in water solution but soluble in most acids (except sulphuric acid). To put it another way, it is one of the most economically or commercially significant barium compounds. While insoluble in tap water, it dissolves somewhat or only partially in carbon dioxide-rich water (\(C{O_2}\)). When combined with other ingredients, it makes a potent rat poison. Other industries that put it to use include those that produce pigments, clay, polymers, plastics, etc. It’s also a key ingredient in making glasses of varying refractive indices.

What is Barium Carbonate?

The chemical formula for barium carbonate, an inorganic chemical substance, is (\(BaC{O_3}\)). In terms of flavour and smell, it’s completely neutral. It looks like regular table salt, just like the other carbonates of alkaline earth metals. It dissolves poorly or not at all in water, although it does so partially in water saturated with carbon dioxide . It also dissolves in most acids, including nitric and hydrochloric acid, but not sulphuric acid. The mineral form of this is known as witherite, and it occurs naturally. Many industrial and commercial applications exist for it. It’s a crucial barium chemical, actually.

Physical Properties of Barium Carbonate

Som physical properties of barium carbonate are-

• It is insoluble in pure water but it is soluble in the water-saturated with Carbon dioxide (\(C{O_2}\)) and it is soluble in most acids except sulphuric acid.
• It has a specific heat of around 0.1448.

• It generally appears as white crystals or white salt powder.
• It has an atom complexity of around 18.78.

Chemical Properties of Barium Carbonate

Some of barium carbonate’s chemical characteristics are as follows:

• Barium carbonate readily reacts with soluble calcium salts to generate Barium sulphate, which precipitates out of the solution, and calcium carbonate. Here is the chemical reaction that occurs while doing so:-

• Barium carbonate can also react with hydrochloric acid to precipitate out as  Barium chloride(BaCl), with by-products being water and \(C{O_2}\). 

Barium Carbonate Structure

      

Barium Carbonate

As seen from the above diagram, \(B{a^{2 + }}\) cation is bonded to the \(CO_3^{2 – }\) anion through an ionic bond. 

Various Uses of Barium Carbonate

Barium carbonate has a variety of applications, including those listed below.

1. As it has been discovered to be an insoluble white salt, it finds extensive application in the ceramics sector, where it is utilised in the production of many different kinds of ceramics.
2. Moreover, it is crucial in the production of PTC thermistors, capacitors, and other electronic devices, as well as the increasingly popular electronic ceramics.
3. Moreover, barium carbonate is used in the creation of fibre optical glasses and magnetic components.
4. It is also a key ingredient in the production of other barium compounds, such as barium oxide and barium peroxide.
5. A common method of producing rodenticide also involves barium carbonate (rat poison). It looks like flour or salt, which is probably why rats are drawn to it.
6. Barium carbonate has several commercial uses, including in the oil-drilling industry, photography, enamel production, magnetic material production, paint and brick production, and a wide range of chemical processes.

Production Method of Barium Carbonate (\(BaC{O_3}\))

Common production methods are:

Carbonation Method– In this process Barium Sulphide (BaS) is pulverised at high temperature. The reaction takes place as follows:

Poison Nepheline Conversion Method– In this method witherite is reacted with an ammonium hydroxide along with ammonium carbonate. The reaction takes place as follows: 

Metathesis Method– In this method barium sulphide and ammonium carbonate react to form barium carbonate through metathesis. The chemical reaction is represented as– 

Dry Granulation Method- Here, barium carbonate is sourced from overabundant precipitation, which is then sieved and stored in a raw materials warehouse.

Summary

Inorganic chemical compound barium carbonate is a  white crystalline powdered salt. Its molecular formula is \(BaC{O_3}\). It has no discernible taste or smell and no visible hue. In addition to being soluble in carbon dioxide-saturated water and the majority of acids, besides sulphuric acid, it may also be dissolved in pure water. It is important in various commercial industries such as polymer, dyes, paints, etc. Moreover, it is crucial in the production of PTC thermistors, capacitors, and other electronic devices, as well as the increasingly popular electronic ceramics.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What makes barium carbonate so dependable?

Among common carbonates, barium carbonate has the highest heat stability. A metal’s electropositive nature tends to grow as it moves towards the bottom of the group of alkaline earth metals. As a result, they become more stable at high temperatures. The stronger the influence of the positive ion on the carbonate ion, the smaller the ion must be.

2. Does barium carbonate have any negative effects on the ecosystem?

As barium is insoluble in water and readily combines with other elements found in nature, like carbonate and sulphate, it presents minimal danger to humans and animals. Persistent barium compounds are often found in surface soil as well as the sediment of freshwater soils.

3. Would barium rust if left exposed to the air?

Barium is an odourless, silvery-white metal at room temperature that becomes a silvery-yellow tint when exposed to air. While it cannot be burned, it may break down when heated, releasing harmful chemicals.

Introduction

There are two types of acids, concentrated and dilute, both of which are defined by their concentration. Dilution occurs when an acid has a significant amount of water added to it. As such, they are diluted to lower the overall acidity. We stay away from the very dangerous acids. In addition, we pay special attention to acids because they may be kept in the home for regular use. Also, they are employed in the control of several chemical operations.

What are Acids?

To be considered acidic, a substance must have a sour flavour when dissolved in water, change the colour of certain indicators (like blue litmus turning red), react with certain metals (like Fe) to release H+ions, react with bases to generate salts, and speed up chemical processes. Acids can be either inorganic (such as nitric and phosphoric acids) or organic (such as phenolic and sulfonic acids) molecules. When these compounds are dissolved in water, the H atom(s) they contain are released as positively charged H+ions.

Examples of Acids

Examples of acids include the following:

• Arrhenius acid
• Citric acid
• Hydrochloric acid
• Sulfuric acid
• Acetic acid
• Vinegar

What is Dilute Acid?

If an acid has been diluted, it has lost more of its acidity to water than the water has gained from the acid. It does not weaken acid or reduce its reactivity. The acidity of the solution you’re working with will decrease. Dilute acids include sulfuric acid that is just 5 percent concentrated. The concentration of sulfuric acid in a solution of 100 grams of water is five percent.

Properties of Dilute Acids

Some common properties of acids are:

• There is a sour aftertaste while consuming acid.
• Electrical solutions are formed when water and acids are mixed together. All of the anionic charge is lost when strong mineral acids are dissolved in water. When organic acids are dissolved in water, a mild ionisation occurs. Some molecules are still in the process of joining together. They are referred to as weak acids.
• When exposed to acids, the litmus indicator changes from blue to red.

Chemical Properties of Dilute Acids

Hydrogen gas is created when metals react. Get some zinc flakes and place them in a clear test tube. Fill the test tube with a solution of HCl that has been diluted. The reaction produces a gas. A burning splitter is moved extremely close to the mouths of the test tubes in order to examine hydrogen gas. A popping noise can be used to detect the presence of hydrogen gas.

Salt & water are produced when an acid reacts with a base (metallic oxide).

When acids react with sodium hydroxide, salt and water are produced.

Altering the pH of the reaction environment can cause profound changes in the products generated from two extremely specific reagents.

Examples of dilute acids

Dilute Hydrochloric acid

Hydrochloric acid, often known as muriatic acid, is an aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride. The chemical symbol for dilute hydrochloric acid is HCl. The solution lacks colour and has a distinct aroma. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid. It is a part of the stomach acid of most animals, including humans. Hydrochloric acid is a crucial reagent in many different industries and fields of study. Dilute hydrochloric acid refers to aqueous acid mixes in which the concentration of HCl is lower than that of water.

HCl molecule

Dilute sulfuric acid 

Sulfuric acid is a mineral acid made up of H2O and sulphur. Sulfuric acid has the formula\({H_2}S{O_4}\). Sulfuric acid is also known by the name “oil of vitriol,” which is a synonym. It is a thick liquid that is both odourless and water-soluble. With its hygroscopic properties, it swiftly soaks up moisture from the air. The aqueous form of sulfuric acid is a powerful acid.

Dilute acetic acid

Ethanoic acid is the official word for acetic acid. \(C{H_3}COOH\) is the molecular formula. It’s an acidic, odourless, and colourless organic molecule. Vinegar contains just acetic acid and water, with the acetic acid accounting for at least 4% of the liquid content. Acetic acid ranks as the second simplest carboxylic acid. The hydrogen in the centre of the carboxylic group is ionisable by carboxylic acids like acetic acid (COOH). Due of this hydronium ion release, acetic acid is acidic. Disappointing monoprotic acid quality.

Summary

Hence, acids are compounds that, upon contact with a base, give forth hydronium ions. Protons are donated to the body by acids. pH values below 7 are considered acidic. Substantial volumes of water are found in diluted acids. A concentrated acid can be diluted using water. A lot of hydrogen ions are released into the water when a strong acid is used. Inorganic acids such as sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acid are examples of strong acids. These substances are called weak acids because they only dissociate into a small number of hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the procedure of dilution?

Ans. Acid is always poured into the water and not the other way around during dilution.  When \({H_2}O\) is combined with an acidic solution, the \({H^+}\) ion concentration decreases, and the solution’s pH rises. The acidic strength then starts to weaken and it becomes diluted. 

2. Are diluted acids as hazardous as concentrated acids?

Ans. Although dilute acids are considerably less hazardous than concentrated counterparts, they are labelled with a warning that they could cause mild health problems or skin irritation. This makes sure that if one of them touches your skin, it will get red or blister.

3. How are dilute acids conducting in nature?

Ans. Dilute acids have free ions in the solvent. These ions carry charge from one electrode to another on application of potential and conduct electricity.  Aqueous HCl solutions can generate energy. Diluted acid produces fewer ions and conducts electricity less.

Introduction

The author of “Bholi” is Khwaja Ahmad Abbas. Sulekha, or Bholi as she is better called, is the protagonist of this tale. Because of her unattractiveness and lack of skill, she was looked down upon by everyone. She turned down her marriage proposal from a stingy elderly guy on her wedding day after she’d reached adulthood.

Summary of the chapter

The narrative’s protagonist is a young lady named Sulekha. She was known as Bholi because of her plainness. She suffered from a stutter due to the brain damage she had throughout her early years of learning to speak. She caught smallpox as a kid, permanently disfiguring her face with pockmarks. As a result, she endured ridicule for her ugliness and lack of intelligence.

Indian girl 

Tehsildar instructed Ramlal to sign up his daughters for school on the first day of classes. At first, Bholi was terrified by the thought of attending school. After she obtained the attention, clothing, and other necessities she needed, however, she began to see school as preferable to her home. As the instructor called her name, she stutteringly answered, much to the amusement of her other students. She grew disheartened and started crying as a result. Only after her instructor asked her to repeat the name with a cheerful expression did Bholi finally learn how to pronounce it correctly. The educator offered her encouragement to keep returning to school despite her stammering. That gave Bholi a reason to believe in a better future.

Bholi was proposed to by Bishamber Nath, an elderly crippled man whose own children were now adults when she reached adulthood. A female attendant lifted the veil off her face when the groom was getting ready to approach the bride. Bisambar was put off by Bholi’s unattractive appearance and hence was unwilling to marry her without a dowry. Her dad set up the dowry funds. But, Bholi turned down Bishamber’s marriage proposal because of his avarice. She shocked everyone by not stuttering when she spoke. Bishamber left the event and returned home. Bholi promised her father that she would one day teach at the school from which she had benefited greatly and also look after his ageing parents.

About the author

Besides being an Indian film screenwriter, director, journalist, and novelist, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas was a writer in Hindi, English, and Urdu as well. The Indian film industry honoured him with four ‘National Film Awards’.

Conclusion

This story teaches us that during the crucial years of childhood when children are still developing into responsible adults. We need to provide them with moral and emotional support. It discusses the harmful social practices that are still common in certain regions of the world and how young girls are made vulnerable to these practises due to a lack of knowledge in the community as a whole.

Textbook Question and Answers

1. Bholi had many apprehensions about going to school. What made her feel she was going to a better place than her home?

Ans. Once she had received proper care, good clothes, and other things, she started believing that school was a better place than her home.

2. How did Bholi’s teacher play an important role in changing her life?

Ans. The school teacher motivated her to talk with confidence. In addition to being polite, she played a key role in enhancing her confidence level and making her a more capable reader, writer, and speaker.

3. Why did Bholi at first agree to an unequal match? Why did she later reject the marriage? What does this tell us about her?

Ans. Bholi agreed to an unequal match because her parents were concerned about her marriage, and the groom was not asking for any dowry. Later she rejected the marriage because the groom asked for a dowry after seeing her ugly face. This indicates that Bholi was full of confidence and self-respect, because of which she could handle the worst situation wisely by taking a brave decision.

4. Bholi’s real name is Sulekha. We are told this right at the beginning. But only in the last but one paragraph of the story is Bholi called Sulekha again. Why do you think she is called Sulekha at that point in the story?

Ans. In the entire story, the girl’s name is mentioned as Bholi, which means a simple girl who does not express her point of view in any situation. When she got an education, she gained the confidence to speak and stand for her rights. When she refused to marry the old man in front of everyone she proved that she was not a Bholi anymore. So the author called her Sulekha.

5. Bholi’s teacher helped her overcome social barriers by encouraging and motivating her. How do you think you can contribute towards changing the social attitudes illustrated in this story?

Ans. We can contribute towards changing the social attitudes illustrated in the story by educating boys and girls regarding their rights, providing equal education opportunities, and opposing dowry.

6. Should girls be aware of their rights and assert them? Should girls and boys have the same rights, duties and privileges? What are some of how society treats them differently? When we speak of ‘human rights’, do we differentiate between girls’ and boys’ rights?

Ans. There is no doubt that girls should be aware of and assert their rights. The rights, privileges, and duties of girls and boys must be equal. In villages and small towns, people treat boys and girls differently. Girls are usually trained to be polite, calm, and expert at household chores with their parents, whereas boys are more likely to be educated. The law does not distinguish between girls’ and boys’ rights when we speak of ‘human rights’, but society does.

7. Do you think the characters in the story were speaking to each other in English? If not, in which language were they speaking? (You can get clues from the names of the persons and the non-English words used in the story.)

Ans. The characters in the story were not speaking to each other in English. It is evident from the text that characters spoke in Hindi, using terms like the number dar, pita ji, tehsildar, and izzat.

Bholi Class 10 Extra Questions and Answers

1. Discuss children’s rights.

Ans. Children have the same rights as adults, including health care, an appropriate education, the means of subsistence, safety, and participation in decision-making, among other things.

2. Can speech problems take place due to brain problems?

Ans. Damage to the part of the brain which controls the “speech movement” can result in stammering while speaking. People who get traumatic brain injuries have a chance of stammering.

3. What is the moral of the story?

Ans. We can learn from this story that children should be morally and emotionally protected during their formative years to grow up to be good citizens.

Introduction

The poem “Ozymandias” is one of the most famous creations of P.B. Shelly. This is a poem about the time-bound ness of humanity. a traveler tells the story of a stone statue that he interacted with in the desert. The statue was of the famous king Ozymandias. He was the most powerful king of his time. This poem shows that no matter how powerful a person is or how magnificent a statue is, it all will eventually fall but the stories and art will live forever.

 Ozymandias

Summary

The poet encounters an old-world traveler. Travelers tell poet about their travels. He describes a desert-found stone statue. Just the statue’s legs survived. He spotted the statue’s face far from the legs. The statue was somewhere in the desert. . The statue was of Ozymandias, according to the inscription. The inscription calls him king of kings and mighty. The inscriptions addressed all subsequent rulers and stated that none could match Ozymandias’ magnificence. The traveler found that hard to accept because nature destroyed the statue and all the beauty of that enormous country. Only ruins supported Ozymandias’ assertions.

The traveler praises the sculptor for perfectly depicting the king’s egoistic and haughty features. The sculpture’s engravings were meaningless. Nature destroyed Ozymandias’ inscriptions.

Poet contemplates irony. They etched the monument to demonstrate his majesty and strength to other rulers. The only remnants are the engravings.

This proves that time destroys everything but art and tales.

Conclusion

The above poem is written by P.B Shelly. In this poem, the author has tried to show that no matter how powerful a person becomes and no matter how much wealth and glory he acquires. He cannot become immortal and that glory will not last forever. Nature is the true enemy of monuments and glorious statues. The author tries to convey that only one thing which can be saved from the brute force of nature is art. Arts in forms of stories and tradition will flourish for generations.

Textbook Questions and Answers

Q.1 “The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed.” Whose hand and heart has the poet referred to in this line?

Ans: The heart refers to the King’s heart whose sculpture was made. The hand refers to the hand of the sculpture.

Q.2 “My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:” Why does Ozymandias refer to himself as King of Kings? What quality of the king is revealed through this statement?

Ans: Ozymandias refers to himself as the king of kings because he was the most powerful king of his time, and it shows the powerful and arrogant nature of the king.

Q.3 “Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!” Who is Ozymandias referring to when he speaks of ye Mighty? Why should they despair?

Ans: Ozymandias is talking to other rulers who came after him. He is telling them to despair because they cannot be as great as he was.

Q.4 Bring out the irony in the poem.

Ans: The poem shows the irony of Ozymandias and other rulers like him, but it also shows the irony of time-bound humanity. The sculptor and Ozymandias thought of his creation to last forever but it was the story and tales of the travelers that lasted longer.

Q.5 ‘Nothing beside remains.’ What does the narrator mean when he says these words?

Ans: The narrator wants to say that humanity is time bound and every life and every creation will finish one day.

Q.6 What is your impression of Ozymandias as a king?

Ans: Ozymandias was a very powerful, boastful and arrogant ruler. he was the most powerful king of his time.

Q.7 What message is conveyed through this poem?

Ans: This poem explains the ultimate truth of human lives, that nothing is permanent. Everything in this world is time-bound and not immortal. However, the poet also conveys the power of art, which can outlive its creators and becomes immortal.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the significance of the statue in the poem?

Ans: The statue of Ozymandias in the poem is a symbol of his power and glory. However, the statue is now ruined and forgotten, serving as a reminder that even the most powerful rulers are ultimately subject to the ravages of time.

2. What is the theme of “Ozymandias”?

Ans: The theme of “Ozymandias” is the transience of power and the fleeting nature of human achievements. The poem reflects on the impermanence of even the mightiest empires and serves as a warning against arrogance and hubris.

3. Why the poet praises the sculptor?

Ans: The poet praised the sculptor because he depicted the minutest details and every wrinkle of the king’s face in the sculpture perfectly. The sculpture shows the true expression of the king.

Introduction 

The following poem is about the poet’s encounter with a snake on a water trough. The poet is conflicted with the idea of whether to kill the snake or respect it. The snake was thirsty and drinking water. After drinking water, the snake started slowly going into the hole and then the poet threw a log at the snake. Then he felt ashamed of his   behaviour. 

Snake

Summary

One hot sunny day, the poet sees a snake drinking water on the water trough. The snake was Golden-Brown. When the poet saw the snake, he was alarmed by its colour and thought it was poisonous but he chose to respect it as it was drinking water quietly. The snake was there first which is why the poet chose to stop and wait for his turn. The snake came from the creek in the earth.  

The snake was unconscious of the presence of the author. The poet was conflicted about his decision whether to kill the poisonous snake or respect nature and let the snake drink water.

The poet is conflicted and in his social education says that the golden snakes are poisonous and therefore he shall kill them. But the poet’s natural human instincts make him like it and he feels happy that it came to his water trough to drink water. He was feeling honoured by the visit of the snake. While the snake started to depart after drinking the water, back to the hole from where he had come. The poet suddenly put his pitcher down, took a log of wood and threw it at the water trough. The snake went inside the hole at a lightning speed. The poet further says that he thinks the log did not hurt it. But he regrets doing this act of cruelty.

About the Poet

Textbook Questions and Answers:

Q.1 Why does the poet decide to stand and wait till the snake has finished drinking? What does this tell you about the poet? 

Ans: The poet decided to wait till the snake finished drinking because the snake came before him and he was drinking water. This shows that poets respect nature and every creature.

Q.2 In stanza 2 and 3, the poet gives a vivid description of the snake by using suggestive expressions. What picture of the snake do you form based on this description?

Ans: The snake that came to the water trough from a fissure in the earth was yellow-brown and soft-bellied. He sipped with his straight mouth and softly drank through his straight gums, into his slack long body, silently.

Q.3 How does the poet describe the day and the atmosphere when he saw the snake?

Ans:  The author described the day as a very warm and sunny day. For the author, it seems like a Sicilian July where Mount Etna is smoking.

Q.4 What does the poet want to convey by saying that the snake emerges from the ‘burning bowels of the earth’?

Ans: From the above line, the poet conveys that, Snake emerged from a fissure in the earth. The snake came from down the earth where it is dark like hell.

Q.5  Do you think the snake was conscious of the poet’s presence? How do you know?

Ans: No, the snake was not aware of the presence of the author. The snake was drinking water peacefully.

Q.6  How do we know that the snake’s thirst was satiated? Pick out the expressions that convey this.

Ans: After drinking the snake, silently lifted his head satisfied and flickered his branched tongue from his lips ‘as one who has drunken’ and slowly proceeded to draw his slow length curving round and climb again the broken bank of my wall-face.

Q.7 The poet has a dual attitude towards the snake. Why does he experience conflicting emotions upon seeing the snake?

Ans: The poet was conflicted after seeing the snake. On one hand, he wanted to respect nature and let the snake drink water peacefully but on the other hand, he was afraid that the snake was poisonous and that he should kill him.

Q.8  The poet is filled with horror and protest when the snake prepares to retreat and bury itself in the ‘horrid black’, ‘dreadful’ hole. In the light of this statement, bring out the irony of his act of throwing a log at the snake.

Ans: After drinking water the snake was slowly moving into the hole, the author picked a log and threw it over the snake. Upon hearing the sound of the log, the snake moved faster into the black hole. The author regretted his action and felt dreadful.

Q.9 The poet seems to be full of admiration and respect for the snake. He almost regards him like a majestic god. Pick out at least four expressions from the poem that reflect these emotions.

Ans: The poet considers him ‘like a god’ and wishes the snake would come back so that he could crown him ‘like a king’. He feels he had missed his ‘chance with one of the lords’ when the snake went back into its hole.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What does the poem teach us?

Ans: The poem ‘Snake’ teaches us about respecting nature and treating every creature as equal.

2. Why was the poet confused?

Ans: The poet was confused after seeing the snake because the snake was yellowish and his social education has taught him that snakes are poisonous and we should kill them. But the poet wanted to respect the snake.

3. How does the poet describe the weather?

Ans: The poet describes the weather as the Sicilian July and Etna burning.

Introduction 

Ordinary substances like table salt are examples of binary compounds. Rock salt structure refers to the crystalline arrangement of salt. Sodium and chlorine ions are organised in a lattice pattern, which is made visible by this structure. Sodium and chlorine ions form a binary system in the sodium chloride lattice. It is essential to learn about these binary compound structures in order to comprehend the characteristics of various materials. Improved elasticity, strength, conductivity, and other physical qualities can be achieved through the synthesis and manufacturing of new materials in this branch of chemistry.

Structure of Sodium Chloride

What are Binary Compounds?

Binary compounds are those that consist of two distinct components combined together. Element refers to a material that cannot be chemically reduced to a simpler form. The simplest class of molecular compounds are the binary compounds. To further distinguish them, we might call them binary phase compounds or just binary phases. These compounds are crucial as they are used as building blocks in the production of several other key organic and inorganic chemicals. Water is an example of such a crucial substance. \({H_2}O\) consists of hydrogen and \({O_2}\), which are the two elements that may combine to form water. Water is a V-shaped covalent binary molecule. Two hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons, making up a water molecule.

The Naming of Binary Compounds

Naming a binary compound is the same as naming any other kind of chemical. In the IUPAC system, you’ll find:

• To identify which cation is present in a binary compound, the cation’s name comes first.
• Binary compounds have their anion names written after the cation names.
• If you add the suffix -ide to the anion’s name, you get the element’s name. For instance, fluoride is the name for the fluorine anion.
• Among these, iron (II) oxide (FeO) is one example. Because iron’s oxidation state is +2, a roman number representing two is appended to the cation’s name.
• If there are more than two of each element in a binary complex, the ion count of each element is included in the ion’s name.
• Dinitrogen trioxide (\({N_2}{O_3}\)) is one such example. The prefix “di” is added to nitrogen because there are two of the element, while the prefix “tri” is given to oxide because there are three of the element’s oxygen atoms.
• When a binary compound contains a transition metal cation, the oxidation number of the cation is shown after the cation’s name in Roman numerals.
• Potassium chloride, for instance, is abbreviated as KCl. In this situation, potassium is a cation and chloride is an anion.

Examples of Binary Compounds

Covalent binary compounds-

Such compounds contain atoms of two elements joined by covalent bonds:\({N_2}O\) ,\(CC{l_4}\) ,\({H_2}{O_2}\), \(C{H_4}\), etc. 

Ionic binary compounds –

Such compounds contain ionic bonds that link atoms of two elements : NaCl, MgO, NaBr,\(BaC{l_2}\), etc. 

Transition metal binary compounds-

AuI, \(FeC{l_2}\)2, CuI, Lead (II) fluoride, \(PbC{l_2}\)2, etc. 

Binary Acids

Binary acids, also called hydracids, consist of hydrogen and a non-metallic element.  There are two types of acids: oxyacids and binary acids. Oxyacids are compounds made up of hydrogen, oxygen, and sometimes additional elements as well. The prefix “hydro,” followed by the element name, and then the suffix “ic” are used to name binary acids. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is one such chemical. The primary building blocks of hydracids are hydrogen and halogens. Many parameters, including the bond energy of bonding between anion and hydrogen, the solvation energy of anion, anion electron affinity, etc., determine the potency of these acids. The hydrogen-ion connection is weaker in acids because hydrogen is a more electronegative element.

Difference between Binary Acids and Binary Compounds

Binary Ionic Compound

Binary ionic compounds are those that consist of atoms of two different elements bound together by electrostatic repulsion. For example NaCl, \(BaC{l_2}\), etc. These compounds form conduction solutions because of free moving ions. 

Summary 

In chemistry, the fundamental building blocks are binary compounds. Learning about larger molecules and compounds is easier after establishing a firm grasp of these simpler ones. There is a large variety of uses for these chemicals since this class of compounds is so vast. For example, a binary compound might be a binary covalent compound, a binary ionic compound, a binary acid, a binary transition metal compound, etc. Pharmacy,organic chemistry, analytical chemistry, industrial chemistry, materials chemistry, biotechnology, polymer chemistry, etc., are just some of the many scientific disciplines that study these compounds and their properties.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Write the order of increasing acidity of hydrohalo acids.

The order of increasing acidity is:

HI>HBr>HCl>HFh

This happens because as the size of the anion increases, its nucleophilicity increases. I– is a strong nucleophile and prefers to stay in such a state. Thus its acidity is highest. 

2. Are all binary compounds conducting in nature?

No, only ionic compounds are conducting in nature. This is because of the formation of free flowing ions which conduct charge. Binary covalent compounds are  not conducting because their atoms are bonded. 

3. Is rust a binary compound?

The chemical formula for rust is FeO. Thus, it is an example of a binary compound since it is only made of two types of atoms. It is an ionic binary compound with iron in +2 oxidation state and it has an octahedral geometry. 

Introduction

The old sailor is portrayed as one of the wedding guests in this poem by the poet, who then begins to recount his tale. He began by describing how their ship sailed out of the harbour joyfully but later encountered difficulties and despair prevailed. He shot and killed a bird. Due to his sin, he was cursed.

Summary

One wedding guest was stopped by an elderly sailor as they were both heading to the wedding feast. He was eager to share his tale with him. The guest was compelled to wait back and hear the sailor’s tale because of his insistence.

The mariner started his account of how their ship left the harbour on a positive note. After a brief period of trouble-free travel, a storm pushed their ship southward toward snow and mist. The ship became stuck in a barren area surrounded by enormous amounts of ice. The ice cracked with tremendous noises.

A flying albatross appeared at this time through the fog. It was regarded as a great soul and a divine messenger. When it arrived, the snow split and made way for the ship, which resumed sailing.

The crew fed the holy bird, which travelled with the ship. The ship was forced out of the cursed country of snow and mist by a favourable south wind. The sailors thanked the bird for being a sign of good things to come.

The sailor’s expression abruptly changed to sadness, which the wedding guest saw. In response to his question, the sailor said that he had shot the bird with his crossbow on the spur of the moment.

His fellow sailors cursed and accused him of murdering the sacred bird, but eventually, they came to believe that he was justified in doing so because it was that bird that had caused the fog and mist.

The ship continued to go smoothly in the direction of the north for a while. The wind abruptly died, and the ship came to a complete halt.

Albatross over Ocean

About the author

“Samuel Taylor Coleridge”, an English poet, literary critic, and philosopher, co-founded the Romantic Movement with his friend “William Wordsworth”

Conclusion

The poem illustrates how one must deal with the consequences of bad deeds. As a result, we must avoid sin. But if that occurs, we must also confess our sins. The Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner is a cautionary tale about the consequences of recklessness and the power of redemption. The Mariner’s journey is a metaphor for life, and his story serves as a reminder that we must be mindful of our actions and take responsibility for our mistakes. The Mariner’s experience teaches us that even in the darkest of times, there is always hope for redemption and a chance to start anew.

Textbook Questions and Answers

1. Answer the following questions briefly.

(a) How did the Ancient Mariner stop the Wedding-Guest?

Ans: The Wedding-Guest was stopped by the Ancient Mariner because of his odd look and dazzling eye. Additionally, he grabbed his hand and gave him a bright-eyed stare. The Wedding Guest immediately stopped due to a kind of magical charm cast by these.

(b) Was the Wedding-Guest happy to be stopped? Give reasons for your answer.

Ans: The wedding guest was not at all pleased to stop. As the next relative of the bridegroom, he requested that the Ancient Mariner release him. He had to be there for the wedding. Second, the party had begun and the guests had arrived. However, the Wedding-Guest was forced to listen when the Ancient Mariner gave him his sparkling eyes and turned to face him.

 (c) Describe the Ancient Mariner.

Ans: With his long, grey beard and sparkling eyes, the Ancient Mariner had a highly unusual and off-putting appearance. He wore interesting clothing and had skinny hands. This gave him a “weird and eerie” appearance. The Wedding Guest was under some sort of magical spell as a result of his personality. He had no choice but to follow the Mariner’s orders.

(d) How does the Mariner describe the movement of the ship as it sails away from the land? 

Ans: The ship was joyfully cheered when it left the harbor, according to The Mariner, who records its movements. It steered beneath the lighthouse, hill, and church. The ship eventually succumbed to the powerful storm after some time. It sailed as though a terrible enemy was following it. Its prow dipped, and its masts stooped low.

(e) What kind of weather did the sailors enjoy at the beginning of their journey? How has it been expressed in the poem?

Ans: The phrase “Merrily did we drop/below the kirk” can be interpreted as the sailors experiencing good weather at the start of their voyage. The sun shone brightly before setting into the right-hand sea. When a sea storm arrived, the weather altered. The ship was seized by this. Then the weather started to deteriorate further.

(f) How did the sailors reach the land of mist and snow?

Ans: The sea storm took the sailors to the region of mist and snow. It was so oppressive that it seized control of the ship and drove it to the region of mist and snow.

(g) How does the mariner express the fact that the ship was surrounded by icebergs?

Ans: The Mariner explains this fact by saying that the ice came floating by at mast height. There was ice all around the ship that appeared to be green. He continues by saying that there was ice everywhere. This ice hissed, raged, howled, and cracked.

(h) How do we know that the Albatross was not afraid of the humans? Why did the sailors hail it in God’s name?

Ans: The albatross once flew through the fog and boarded the ship. It came when sailors called it, and it ate food. As a result, it had no fear of people. Since it was the first live thing they had seen since they arrived at the ice-filled sea, the sailors hailed it in the name of God. There, the albatross appeared to be God’s messenger.

(i) What was the terrible deed done by the mariner? Why did you think he did it?

Ans: Mariner used his crossbow to kill the albatross. He shot it for a cause that he does not understand.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. How did the other crew members treat the Ancient Mariner?

Ans: He was initially criticized by the other sailors for killing the albatross. They quickly altered their minds, though, and began to honor the ancient mariner who had killed the bird that had brought in the fog and mist. 

2. What caused the Mariner to kill the albatross?

Ans:  The mariner killed the albatross because he thought it was a bad omen and the reason why their wind had dropped.

3. What happens next when the Mariners shoot the albatross?

Ans: The sailors are so furious with the Mariner for killing the albatross and permanently cursing their ship that they force him to wear the bird’s body around his neck to symbolize the burden he must bear for doing so.

4. What is the irony in the poem?

Ans: The irony is that the sailors are unable to drink the seawater despite the ship being surrounded by it. Coleridge’s use of sarcasm in this passage helps to highlight how terrible things are for the sailors.