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An Introduction to Matter

In addition to taking on various forms, the matter is composed of small particles. Because they are so small, it is impossible to see these particles with the human eye. We have mentioned below some of the various properties of matter. There are different states of matter can also be found. The three common states are solids, liquids, and gases. Atoms and other particles with mass and volume are included in the matter.

What do you understand by the Characteristics of Particles of Matter?

We are aware that every substance in our environment is composed of small particles. This means that these particles have some attributes and can affect the status of properties. These characteristics of the substance can be either physical or chemical.

Why are the particles drawn to one another?

1. The intermolecular force of attraction is the mechanism that pulls the particles toward one another. Additionally, the strength fluctuates according to the substance’s state.

2. The strongest and most stable objects are solids because they have the most of this force.

3. Since gases are not rigid and can take the shape of a vessel and be squeezed, we can say that it is significantly less in gases.

4. A higher force of attraction exists between the molecules of solids than in liquids and gases. However, the intermolecular force of attraction in liquids is higher than that of gases, making them less compressible than the gases.

Particles of Matter Attract Each Other 

Let us understand, this characteristic with the help of two different activities. 

Activity-1

1. Take a coin and a chalk 

2. On trying to hammer the chalk and coin, the chalk gets powdered with great ease. On the other hand, the coin does not break easily.

3. This shows that the coin has a relatively strong force of attraction, followed by chalk, which has the least force of attraction.

Activity-2

1. If we try to move our hands through water and air, our hands can move easily through the air as against the water.

2. This is because the force of attraction between the particles in water is greater than that in air.

Summary 

Every particle of matter is always drawn to other nearby particles. The intermolecular force of attraction is the name given to this force of attraction between the component particles. The particles of matter are held together by this force. We can also conclude that solid has the greatest amount of force of attraction between particles, followed by liquids and gases have the least amount of force of attraction.

Frequently Asked Questions

1.Do matter’s constituent particles always attract one another?

Ans: Every particle of matter is always drawn to other nearby particles. The intermolecular force of attraction is the name given to this force of attraction between the component particles. The particles of matter are held together by this force.

2. What are the several forms that matter can take?

Ans: Solids, liquids, and gases are the three states in which matter can be found. Ice is a solid, water is a liquid, and steam is water in a gaseous state. Therefore, matter exists in all three states.

3. How can you ascertain the material’s physical characteristics?

Ans: We are aware that everything we see is made of something. They take up space and have mass. It’s crucial to realize that not all matter has the same physical characteristics. One common illustration of this fact is the fact that while sand particles are insoluble in water, salt particles are. Therefore, these elements can be referred to as matter’s physical characteristics.

An Introduction to Matter

1. The matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.
2. All matter, whether it be living or non-living, is claimed to be composed of the five fundamental components (panch tattva) of air, earth, fire, sky, and water.
3. The two ways that modern scientists categorize matter are based on its physical and chemical characteristics.
4. Material is divided into three categories: solids, liquids, and gases based on its physical characteristics.
5. The matter is divided into elements, compounds, and combinations based on its chemical makeup.

Physical nature of Matter

Tiny particles make up matter. The three fundamental categories of matter—solids, liquids, and gases—are based on how these particles are arranged. They are sometimes referred to as the physical states of matter. Additionally, this classification is based on variations in several physical characteristics, including mass, volume, form, stiffness, density, and particle arrangement.

Physical Nature of Matter: The Solid-State

In general, all solids have a fixed volume with little compressibility, a fixed shape, and defined borders. When a force from outside the solid is applied, the solid usually keeps its shape. This demonstrates how stiff they are. Solids, however, may break under force.

Characteristics of Solids

1. Solids have a definite shape
2. Solids have fixed volume
3. Solids cannot be compressed
4. Solids have high density 
5. Solids have negligible kinetic energy of the particle
6. Solids do not show the property of diffusion
7. Solids cannot flow

Physical Nature of Matter: The Liquid State

As we’ve seen, fluidity or particle motion is hardly noticeable, while stiffness is at its highest in the solid state. Both of these properties differ when the substance is liquid. In terms of the physical nature of matter, liquids are less rigid than solids and also exhibit considerably greater molecular motion. The presence of weaker inter-particle forces accounts for both of these properties in the liquid state.

Characteristics of Liquids

1. Liquids do not have a fixed shape
2. Liquids have a fixed volume
3. Liquids cannot be compressed much 
4. Liquids show fluidity but not rigidity 
5. Liquids are less dense
6. Particles can diffuse easily in a liquid state

Physical Nature of Matter: The Gaseous State

The gaseous state has the most inter-particle gaps out of the three states described by the Physical Nature of Matter. The different particles are kept together as tightly as possible in the gaseous state by inter-particle interactions. As a result, stiffness is at its lowest and fluidity is at its highest.

Characteristics of Gases

1. Gases do not have fixed shapes
2. Gases exhibit maximum fluidity
3. Gases are highly compressible
4. In the gaseous state, the kinetic energy of the particles is very high 
5. Gases diffuse rapidly 

Summary

There are three different types of physical nature in the world around us. Solid, liquid, and gas are these we breathe in air, which is a gas, and we drink water, which is a liquid. Because different types of matter contain varied amounts of inter-particle space, we have mentioned three possible states of matter. In this article, we studied the characteristics of solids, liquids, and gases. In a nutshell, this is how matter behaves physically in the universe.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the differences between solids, liquids and gases?

Solids	Liquids	Gases
Have strong intermolecular force.	Weak intermolecular force.	Very weak intermolecular force.
Have definite shape and volume.	Do not have a definite shape, but have a definite volume.	Neither have definite shape nor definite volume.
Have high density.	Have low density.	Have very low density.
Solids can not be compressed.	Liquids can be compressed.	Gases are highly compressible.

2. What do you understand by matter?

Ans. The matter is anything with mass that takes up space. Atoms are the minuscule constituent parts of matter. Matter exists in three different states. Gas, liquid, and solid.

3. What are physical property and chemical properties?

Ans. A substance’s physical property is a quality that can be seen or quantified without affecting the substance’s identity. Colour, density, hardness, and melting and boiling points are examples of physical qualities. The capacity of a substance to go through a particular chemical transition is described by its chemical property.

भूमिका

वाच्य शब्द का अर्थ होता है- बोलने का विषय। वाच्य को अंग्रेज़ी में “voice” कहते हैं। वाच्य उस रचना को कहते हैं जिससे यह पता चलता है कि क्रिया को मूल रूप से चलाने वाला कर्ता है, कर्म है या भाव है।

वाच्य की परिभाषा

वाक्य में कर्ता, कर्म या भाव में से किसकी प्रधानता है, यह क्रिया के जिस रूप से पता चलता है, वह वाच्य कहलाता है।

उदाहरण

1. सीता खाना बनाती है। इस वाक्य में ‘सीता’ कर्ता है। वह कार्य को कर रही है। इस वाक्य में कर्ता की प्रधानता है।
2. सीता द्वारा खाना बनाया जाता है। इस वाक्य में ‘ द्वारा’ का प्रयोग होने के कारण कर्ता की प्रधानता खत्म हो गई है।‘खाना’ कर्म है तथा ‘बनाना’ क्रिया है। अतः इस वाक्य में कर्म की प्रधानता है।
3. मुझसे सर्दियों में नहीं नहाया जाता।इस वाक्य में कर्ता एवं कर्म प्रधान न होकर ‘नहीं नहाया जाता’ भाव मुख्य है।

वाच्य के प्रकार | vachya ke bhed

वाच्य के तीन प्रकार होते हैं-

1. कर्तृवाच्य
2. कर्मवाच्य
3. भाववाच्य

1. कर्तृवाच्य 

जिस वाक्य में कर्ता प्रधान होता है एवं क्रिया, पद के लिंग और वचन के अनुसार होती है, वहाँ कर्तृवाच्य होता है।

उदाहरण 

1. राम पत्र लिखता है। इस वाक्य में ‘राम’ कर्ता है एवं ‘पत्र’ कर्म तथा ‘लिखना’ क्रिया है। यहाँ कर्ता ‘राम’ की प्रधानता है।
2. दर्जी कपड़े सिलता है। इस वाक्य में ‘दर्जी’ कर्ता है एवं ‘कपड़े’ कर्म है तथा ‘सिलना’ क्रिया है। यहाँ कर्ता ‘दर्जी’ की प्रधानता है।
3. मोहन पुस्तक पढ़ता है| इस वाक्य में ‘मोहन’ कर्ता है एवं ‘पुस्तक’ कर्म है एवं ‘पढ़ना’ क्रिया है। यहाँ कर्ता ‘मोहन’ की प्रधानता है।

विशेष 

• कर्तृवाच्य में कर्ता कारक होता है।
• कर्तृवाच्य में सकर्मक और अकर्मक दोनों क्रियाएँ होती है। 

2. कर्मवाच्य

कर्मवाच्य में क्रिया का सीधा संबंध कर्म से होता है एवं जहाँ वाक्य में क्रिया पद का लिंग, वचन आदि कर्म के अनुसार होता है, वहाँ कर्म वाच्य होता है। कर्म वाच्य में क्रिया सकर्मक होती है।

उदाहरण

1. बच्चे द्वारा क्रिकेट खेला जाता है। वाक्य में ‘द्वारा’ का प्रयोग होने से “बच्चे” की प्रधानता समाप्त हो गई एवं खेलना यहाँ प्रधान है और इस क्रिया का सीधा संबंध कर्म से है। 
2. माली द्वारा पौधे लगाए गए है। वाक्य में ‘द्वारा’ का प्रयोग होने से “माली” की प्रधानता समाप्त हो गई एवं ‘पौधे’ कर्म है तथा ‘लगाना’ क्रिया है। यहाँ क्रिया का सीधा संबंध कर्म से है। 
3. नानी के द्वारा कहानी सुनाई जाती है। वाक्य में ‘द्वारा’ का प्रयोग होने से “नानी” की प्रधानता समाप्त हो गई एवं कहानी सुनाना यहाँ प्रधान है। यहाँ क्रिया का सीधा संबंध कर्म से है। 

 कर्मवाच्य के प्रयोग स्थल-

• जिस वाक्य में कर्ता ज्ञात ना हो। जैसे- खाना भेजा गया।
• जब बिना चाहे कोई क्रिया अचानक हो जाए। जैसे- घर में आग लग गई।
• जिस वाक्य में कर्त्ता प्रकट न हो। जैसे- चोरों का पता लगाया जा रहा है।
• सूचना में, जहाँ कर्ता निश्चित नहीं हो- जैसे-  गुनेहगार को कल पेश किए जाए।

विशेष

• कर्मवाच्य में कर्त्ता की प्रधानता को समाप्त करने के लिए ‘के द्वारा’ एवं ‘द्वारा’ का प्रयोग किया जाता है।
• कर्मवाच्य केवल ‘सकर्मक’ क्रिया से बनता है क्योंकि यह कर्म प्रधान है।

3. भाववाच्य

जिस वाक्य में क्रिया पद पर कर्ता और कर्म के लिंग और वचन का कोई प्रभाव नहीं होता, वहाँ भाववाच्य होता है। इसमें केवल भाव को प्रधानता दी जाती है।

उदाहरण

1. मुझसे खाया नहीं जाता। इस वाक्य में अकर्मक क्रिया है एवं ‘खाया नहीं जाता’ भाव की प्रधानता है।
2. मोहन से झुका नहीं जाता। इस वाक्य में अकर्मक क्रिया का प्रयोग है एवं ‘झुका नहीं जाता’ भाव की प्रधानता है।
3. सीता से चला नहीं जाता। वाक्य  में अकर्मक क्रिया का प्रयोग है एवं ‘चला नहीं जाता’ भाव की प्रधानता है।

भाववाच्य के प्रयोगस्थल

• जहाँ ‘नहीं’ का प्रयोग नहीं होता वहाँ मूल कर्ता सामान्य होता है; जैसे– चलो बाहर चला जाए।
• असमर्थता या विवशता प्रकट करने के लिए ‘नहीं’ के साथ किया जाता है; जैसे – अब तो कुछ याद भी नहीं रखा जाता।

विशेष

1. भाववाच्य में क्रिया हमेशा पुल्लिंग, एकवचन तथा अकर्मक होती है।
2. ज़्यादातर भाववाच्यों में नकारात्मक वाक्यों का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

अधिकतर पूछे जाने वाले सवाल

1.कर्मवाच्य वाक्यों की पहचान कैसे की जाती है?
उत्तर: कर्मवाच्य वाक्यों में कर्ता की प्रधानता को समाप्त करने के लिए कर्ता के साथ ‘के द्वारा’ एवं ‘द्वारा’ का प्रयोग किया जाता है। कर्मवाच्य केवल सकर्मक क्रिया से बनता है।

2. मुझसे चला नहीं जाता। वाच्य की पहचान कीजिए।
उत्तर: इस वाक्य में ‘नहीं’ का प्रयोग कर असमर्थता प्रकट की गई है एवं भाव की प्रधानता है। यहाँ भाववाच्य है।

3. अकर्मक और सकर्मक दोनों क्रियाओं का प्रयोग किस वाच्य में किया जाता है?
उत्तर:  कर्तृवाच्य में सकर्मक और अकर्मक दोनों क्रियाओं का प्रयोग होता है।

4. ‘के द्वारा’ एवं ‘द्वारा’ का प्रयोग वाच्य में किसकी प्रधानता समाप्त करने के लिए किया जाता है?
उत्तर: कर्मवाच्य में कर्ता की प्रधानता को समाप्त करने के लिए ‘के द्वारा’ एवं ‘द्वारा’ का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

सर्वनाम	संज्ञा
प्रत्यय	अलंकार
वर्तनी	पद परिचय
वाक्य विचार	समास
लिंग	संधि
विराम चिन्ह	शब्द विचार
अव्यय	काल

Countable Nouns

Nouns that represent things or entities that can be counted are called countable nouns. Examples include persons, pen, pencils, etc. These nouns can be grouped into plurals or singulars.

What are Plural Nouns and Singular Nouns?

Singular nouns are those nouns which denote a single person, place, or thing. For example, boy, girl, tree, city, brush, teacher, etc.

Plural nouns are those which denote more than one person, place, or thing. For example, boys, girls, trees, cities, brushes, teachers, etc.

Rules of Forming Plurals

In english only two numbers exists-singular and plural. Every singular noun has its plural form that may or may not be alike.  There are some rules to form plurals from singular nouns. These are as follows:

Rule 1: Plural nouns can be formed by adding -s to their singular form. 

Singular	Plural
Boy	Boys
Cow	Cows
Pencil	Pencils
Bag	Bags

Rule 2: Plurals of the nouns ending with -x, -s, -sh, or-ch are formed by adding -es to their singular forms.

Singular	Plural
Box	Boxes
Bus	Buses
Branch	Branches
Brush	Brushes

Rule 3: Plurals of nouns that end in -o are formed are mostly formed by adding -es to their singular forms. However, some plurals are formed by adding -s.

Singular	Plural
Potato	Potatoes
Mango	Mangoes
Photo	Photos
Logo	Logos

Rule 4: Plurals of nouns that end in -y preceded by a consonant are formed by replacing -y with -ies. 

Singular	Plural
City	Cities
Deity	Deities
Franky	Frankies
Army	Armies

Rule 5: Plurals of nouns that end in -f or -fe  are formed by replacing -f or -fe with -ves.

Singular	Plural
Half	Halves
Knife	Knives
Life	Lives
Calf	Calves

Exception: Some nouns ending with -f or -fe can be converted into plural by adding -s.

Singular	Plural
Chief	Chiefs
Safe	Safes
Cliff	Cliffs
Proof	Proofs

Rule 6: Plurals of some noun are formed by changing an internal vowel. 

Singular	Plural
Man	Men
Woman	Women
Tooth	Teeth
Mouse	Mice

Rule 7: Some plurals are exactly same as their singular forms. For example, dozen, score, sheep,gross, etc.

Rule 8: Some plurals are formed by adding -en to their singular forms.

Singular	Plural
Ox	Oxen
Child	Children

Rule9: Some nouns that are taken from a different language have a completely unique or original plural forms. They aren’t derived.

Singular	Plural
Radius	Radii
Bacterium	Bacteria
Memorandum	Memorandum
Axis	Axes

Rule 10: Compound nouns are formed into plurals by adding -s to the principal word.

Singular	Plural
Son-in-law	Sons-in-law
Commander-in-chief	Commanders-in chief
Step-daughter	Step-daughters
Passer by	Passers by

Some Interesting Facts About Singular and Plural Nouns

• Some nouns are always used in plural. For example, bellows, tongs, scissors, spectacles, pincers, trousers, jeans, drawers, etc.
• Some nouns are now used as plurals are actually singular. For example, alms, riches, etc.
• Some nouns look plural but they are singular. For example, mathematics, physics, news, rickets, mumps, billiards, etc.
• Some nouns are are used as singular but always represent more than one. For example, money, wealth, etc.
• Some collective nouns are always used as plurals. For example, poultry, cattle,people, etc.
• Some nouns has two different plural forms with different meaning. For example, Brother has two plural forms, brothers and brethren. Brothers is used when one denotes sons of same parents. Brethren denotes members of same group, society, or nation.
• Some nouns have different meanings in singular and plural form. For example, advice means counsel wherein advices means information.
• Some uncountables can become countable when formed into plurals. For example kindness is an abstract noun and cannot be counted but when we write kindnesses, we mean to say acts of kindness. Similarly when we say tin we mean a single metal but when we say tins it means boxes or cans made up of tin.

Frequently Asked Questions

1.What is the plural form of fish, sheep, scissors?

Ans: Plurals of fish-fishes/fish, sheep-sheep, scissor-scissors.

2.‘Bouquet’ should use is or are as helping verb?

Ans: A bouquet of flowers denotes a single collection of flowers. It will be hence treated as a unit and will be followed by singular verb.

Introduction

A straight line that intersects another straight line at a 90-degree angle is said to be perpendicular to the first line. The small square in the middle of two perpendicular lines in the figure represents 90 degrees, also known as a right angle. Here, two lines cross at a right angle, indicating that they are perpendicular to one another.

In contrast to sloping or horizontal lines or surfaces, perpendicular lines or surfaces point directly upward. An object is at a 90-degree angle to another if it is perpendicular to it. A pair of lines, vectors, planes, or other objects are said to be perpendicular if they intersect at a right angle. Two vectors are perpendicular if their dot product equals zero.

Perpendiculars

When two lines intersect at a right angle, they are said to be perpendicular to one another. A first line is perpendicular to a second line, more specifically, if the two lines intersect and the straight angle on one side of the first line is split into two congruent angles by the second line at the intersection. Since perpendicularity is symmetric, if one line is perpendicular to another, the other line is also perpendicular to the first. As a result, we don’t need to specify an order when referring to two lines as perpendicular (to one another).

Perpendicular Lines

Segments and rays are easily extended by perpendicularity. If a line segment AB and a line segment CD result in an infinite line when both directions are extended, then the two resulting lines are perpendicular in the sense mentioned above. Line segment AB is perpendicular to line segment CD and can be represented by the symbol AB ⊥ CD. If a line crosses every other line in a plane, it is said to be perpendicular to the plane. The definition of line perpendicularity is necessary for understanding this definition.

Perpendicular Theorem

According to the perpendicular line theorem, two straight lines are perpendicular to one another if they intersect at a point and create a pair of equal linear angles.

Assume two lines AB and CD intersect each other at O, such that ∠AOC = ∠COB, also since AB is a line, ∠AOC and ∠COB also form a linear pair.

Then, ∠AOC + ∠COB = 180°

Using ∠COB = ∠AOC

⇒ ∠AOC + ∠AOC = 180°

⇒ 2 ∠AOC = 180°

⇒ ∠AOC = 90°

Thus, since the angle of intersection is 90°, we can say that AB is perpendicular to CD and vice versa.

Also Read: Related Angles

Perpendicularity: Slope Formula

Perpendicularity is known as the mathematical condition that two lines need to satisfy to be called perpendicular. Mathematically, if two lines are perpendicular to each other, then the product of their slopes is negative unity.

For example, let two lines of slope . Then these lines are said to be perpendiculars to one another if their slopes have a product -1, i.e.,  

Equation of a Perpendicular Line.

Using the conditions from previous sections, we can find the equation of the perpendicular line to any given line’s equation, at a certain point.

Let, ax + by = c be a line, and we need to find a line perpendicular to it passing through

First, we will find the slope of the given line, 

Slope of a line m = -a/b

Now, using perpendicularity, if the slope of the second line is m’, then for these lines to be perpendicular

m × m’=- 1

⇒ m’ =- 1/m =- 1/-a/b = b/a

Thus, the slope of the perpendicular line is, 

m’= b/a

Then, we have a point as well as the slope for the equation of the perpendicular line,

Using point-slope form

If we know the exact values of a, b and then we can further simplify this equation.

Interesting Facts about Perpendicular Lines

• In order to obtain the maximum support for the roof, walls and pillars are constructed perpendicular to the ground in our homes and other buildings. This is just one example of how perpendiculars are used in everyday life.
• Perpendiculars of two lines that meet at an angle will also meet at that same angle.

Solved Examples

Example: Which of the following pair of lines are perpendicular, parallel, or simply intersecting?

1. Intersecting, since the angle of intersection here is given to be 100 degrees.
2. Perpendicular, as we know the right angle is also represented by a small square, we can say that these lines are perpendicular to each other.
3. Parallel lines, clearly extending these lines to infinity we will never see them intersecting; thus, they are parallel.
4. Perpendicular, clearly the angle of intersection here is given to be 90 degrees.

Summary

The subject of perpendiculars and the perpendicularity of lines were covered in this article. The reader should be able to comprehend the meaning of perpendicular lines, the symbol used to represent them, as well as the formula and theorems relating to perpendicular lines, after carefully reading this article. Two lines are said to be perpendicular if their angle of intersection is a right angle. The slopes of perpendicular lines are negative reciprocals of each other.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1.What are Perpendicular Lines?

Ans. When two lines intersect at an angle of 90 degrees, the lines are said to be perpendicular to each other.

2. How do you Find the Slope of a line Perpendicular to a Given Line?

Ans. The slope of perpendicular lines are negative reciprocals of each other; thus, the slope of a perpendicular line can be found simply by negating the reciprocal of the slope of the given line.

3. What are Perpendicular Bisectors?

Ans. A line that divides another line segment into two halves while also being at a right angle to it is known as the perpendicular bisector of the line segment.

4. Are all Intersecting Lines Perpendicular?

Ans. No, all intersecting lines are not perpendicular, but all perpendicular lines are intersecting, that too at a specific angle, i.e., 90 degree.

Also read: Properties, Area of Right-Angled Triangles

Introduction

The discovery of iron led to a revolution in Indian agriculture. By the end of the Chalcolithic Age, the Indian subcontinent had been using iron for around 2500–3000 years. Now, during this time, the tools made of iron and steel were stronger and more efficient than those made of bronze. Manufacturing iron tools enhanced farming and contributed to a bigger economy.

The creation of iron farming implements greatly facilitated the agricultural process and contributed to a larger increase in farm produce. People were able to adapt to a stable existence at that time through commercial farming (trade between other nations) and subsistence farming, which helped people produce in huge amounts. Iron implements contributed to the prosperity of tiny kingdoms in a similar manner.

Indian Iron History from a Historical Perspective

In India, evidence of iron tools has been found in megalithic (big stone) burial sites. These sites in India comprised modern-day Karnataka and Kerala in the south, extended to some parts of central India and trans-Vindhyas. In many of these sites, the use of iron perhaps started by the end of the Neolithic and during the Chalcolithic age. 

Our Rig Veda and Yajur Veda contain references to the process of obtaining metal from ores. Iron was the third metal mentioned in Rig Vedic hymns, after gold and silver. Iron utilisation saw rapid development around 1400 BCE. Early evidence of iron smelting was thought to have been produced by tribal craftspeople in several places. 

Agriculture and the Iron

Agriculture underwent a turning point with the invention of iron. People have now begun to create powerful, long-lasting, and simple-to-form tools and weapons with this metal. 

This allowed them to create a compact, extremely sharp, and lightweight instrument that was challenging to craft out of stone or copper. Sickles, axes, spades, and plough shares are a few examples of significant tools. They could now plough difficult land thanks to these.

As agricultural output increased, people started to stay put in one location for longer periods of time, as opposed to moving around in search of food and water. The size of kingdoms also grew as a result. 

The king was now in need of money or taxes from the population to maintain his country. Farmers became the principal taxpayers because agriculture was one of the kingdom’s most productive industries. The monarchs used to encourage farmers by making arrangements for canals, wells, and tanks to boost farm output to increase the revenue from this field.

Iron Tools

The use of iron tools fundamentally altered human life. A new type of permanent community emerged with the large-scale production of tools. The provision of military equipment like iron swords and other weapons that were utilised by armies and soldiers for fighting wars and conflicts, not only changed agriculture but also established the groundwork for large kingdoms and empires. Since the idea of communities had begun to take hold, individuals had started to build their spheres of influence.

People, now, began establishing ties with other nations as well. The development of agriculture and the subsequent creation of surplus grain opened the door for thriving trades. Tools were traded for grain, which resulted in the growth of trade customs. Over time, as trade increased, coins started to be used in transactions. Numerous Roman coins have been discovered by archaeologists in India.

Summary

The discovery of iron altered the course of history. Its discovery was unexpected, but its expansion took centuries. The tribals of India carried the traditions from antiquity to the modern era. When the famous Damascus sword was being prepared with indigenous steel-making technology, India was the workshop of the entire world. The invention of the iron in some ways created the groundwork for a civilization that was more civilised. However, as with any historical event, there were ups and downs in India’s iron history due to a variety of internal and external factors.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1.How did Early Humans Discover Iron and use it for Tools?
Ans: Humans had figured out how to extract iron from rocks and turn them into implements made of iron. Iron was first discovered in rocks, or iron ore, which was melted at extremely high temperatures. The iron was heated and hammered while in contact with charcoal, resulting in the iron being stronger and more durable.

2.What Effects did the Iron Age have on Human Life?
Ans: The development of iron tools aided in making farming easier and more efficient. Farmers could plough tougher soil, allowing them to harvest new crops and free up time for more leisure activities. Throughout the Iron Age, new crop and livestock varieties were introduced at various times.

3. How did Early People’s lives Alter between the Bronze and Iron Ages?
Ans: Around 1200 BCE was the start of the Bronze Age. Tools from this era were constructed of bronze. Iron, which was more durable and powerful than bronze and so brought about the Iron Age, soon took its place.

Introduction

After the downfall of the Mughal empire, many Mughal provinces became an independent kingdom. These independent nations were known as successor states. These successor nations included Bengal, Hyderabad, and Awadh. 

Rise of Autonomous States

As regional kingdoms became aware of the Mughal emperors’ frailty, they started to declare their independence and challenge their power. The states of Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad, Mysore, Jat, and the Sikh state were among these autonomous states.

• Bengal: Murshid Quli Khan established this state in 1717 after moving his capital from Decca to Murshidabad. His son Shujauddin took over as his successor. Alivardi Khan (who prevented the French East India Company from abusing its privileges), Siraj-ud-daulah (who fought in the renowned Battle of Plassey in 1757), Mir Jafar, and Mir Qasim were a few of the state’s other notable rulers.

• Awadh: In 1722, Sadat Khan established the state of Awadh, which is now known as Uttar Pradesh. He participated in the plot against the Sayyid brothers, which led to more manuals being handed to him. He was afterwards forced to enter a new principality of Awadh after being expelled from the court.

• • Hyderabad: Qilich Khan, who was bestowed the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk by the Mughal emperor Farruksiyar, formed the independent kingdom of Hyderabad. The selection of Mubriz Khan as the viceroy of Deccan did not sit well with him. Thus, in the battle of Shkr-Kheda, Qilich Khan engaged him in combat and ultimately killed him.

• Mysore: Mysore was a significant state that proclaimed its independence. It was allotted at the intersection of the eastern and western ghats while the Wodeyars were in power. This region was under the scrutiny of numerous powers and became a perpetual battleground as a result. In the end, Haider Ali was in charge of it, and he had to deal with a lot of consequences for this.

• • The Jat state: The agriculturalist Jat settlers of Delhi, Mathura, and Agra began to rebel against the Mughal rule because of Aurangzeb’s repressive policies. Finally, Bharatpur, the Jat state, was founded by Churaman and Badan Singh.

• The Sikh state: To defend their faith, Guru Gobind Singh turned the Sikhs into a militant group. During the Nadir Shan and Ahmed Shah Abdali invasion, the Sikhs consolidated their power.

The Nizam’s Army

Asaf-Jah sometimes referred to as Nizam-ul-Mulk, founded the state of Hyderabad. He was thus the state’s first ruler (Nizam). He possessed sizable and powerful armed forces that were further split into two groups: regular forces and irregular forces. Imperial Service Troops, Golconda Brigade, and Myseram Regiment were all part of the structured, modern regular army. The irregular one included individuals from many regions or ethnic groups, including Afghans, Sikhs, Jats, Turks, Rohillas, etc.

The Private Military, which was Organized by Nizam

A private military is primarily a type of armed force that is more loyal to an individual or group of individuals than it is to a country or state. During the British Raj in India, a leader of the Muslim nationalist group MIM (Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen) by the name of Bhadur Yar Jung established the private armed force known as Razakars in Hyderabad. During the rule of Nizam Osman Ali (the final Nizam), it was effectively organized and made more turbulent by Qasim Razvi. Because they killed so many people, these Razakars were seen as being extremely ruthless and ferocious.

Duties and Responsibilities

Hyderabad was offered the option of joining either India or Pakistan in 1947, during the period of independence. Osman Ali Asaf Jah, the last Nizam of this state, rejected the notion and opted to keep it as a separate princely state. Qasim Razvi sent out the Razakars to guard the survival of Hyderabad’s princely state and to oppose the state’s incorporation into the Dominion of India. As a result of this military force’s extreme brutality, many people were slain in the Telangana and Marathawada regions. They even killed individuals they suspected of being opposed to the concept of princely states. Five days of the fighting occurred between Indian soldiers and the Razakars.

In the end, the Indian army routed the Razakar, and Razvi was detained until being permitted to leave for Pakistan. Meanwhile, Hyderabad was included in the Indian empire through Operation Polo

Summary

Numerous local kingdoms rose to power and proclaimed their independence from the Mughal empire by taking advantage of the Mughal emperors’ weaknesses. These nations began preserving their armed forces and collaborating against the Mughals. These independent nations saw the emergence of Hyderabad, Bengal, Punjab, Mysore, and other regions as well. Few of these princely nations even resisted joining India even after the British left office because their monarchs desired to keep their full independence. Hyderabad was one of these states, and it had its private army, the Razakars.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1.Why was Hyderabad known as the city of Nizams?
Ans. Because Qilich Khan of the Asaf Jahi dynasty, who was given the title of Nizam, founded Hyderabad, it became known as the city of Nizam. Following him, the same dynasty’s six additional Nizams ruled Hyderabad.

2.What was the Tripartite Treaty?
Ans. Ranjit Singh signed the tripartite agreement with Shah Shuja, the English firm, and themselves, agreeing to let the British forces travel through Punjab in exchange for their approval to install Shah Shuja as the ruler of Kabul.

 3. What was Operation Polo?
Ans. The police action of the newly independent India against Hyderabad in 1948 was known as “Operation Polo.” Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the Indian Home Minister, gave the order for Indian troops to attack and annex the princely state of Hyderabad.

4. Why is the Battle of Plassey Important in Indian History?
Ans. Siraj-ud-daulah and the East India Company engaged in combat at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Because it cemented the British military dominance in Bengal and laid the groundwork for the British Empire in India, this conflict had a significant impact on Indian history.

5. Mention the Reforms made by Tipu Sultan.

• Economic reforms: establishing trade relations by sending ambassadors abroad. 
• Revenue reforms: it included the elimination of the jagir system, a reduction in the hereditary ownership of poligars, and initiatives to elevate the status of the peasantry. 
• Military reforms: it included the organization of the army along European lines and the construction of two dockyards for modern navy ships.

Introduction

One of the greatest kings in Indian history was Ashoka the Great. In Ashoka’s life, the Kalinga War marked a turning point. He was upset to witness so much carnage and ruin throughout that conflict. He was highly affected by Buddhist doctrine and abandoned all forms of violence. Furthermore, he advocated the “Dhamma” policy, which accepted the tenets of Buddhism, while keeping in mind non-violence and compassion. The Sanskrit term “Dharma,” which denotes religious and moral obligation, is the root of the word “dhamma.” For all living things to coexist happily on this planet, Ashoka intended to propagate good moral ideals among the populace through this policy.

The Dhamma Policy of Ashoka

After the Kalinga War, Ashoka became a Buddhist and began to follow and propagate Buddhist ideas. In addition, he developed a new “dhamma” policy that emphasised non-violence, compassion, and peace. 

• He never made a big deal out of any complicated sacrifices or rites in this. After that, he gave up on his plan to conquer more territory and subjugate other cultures.
• He decided to become “Dhamma Mahamatta,” a travelling preacher of the Dhamma, to spread its teachings throughout his empire. Even his son and daughter were dispatched to Sri Lanka to propagate the Dhamma. 
• Secularism, which did not focus on any single religion but rather respected all religions, was the foundation of his Dhamma. He never forced the Dhamma on his subjects; instead, they were persuaded and came to accept it.
• He set an example for others to follow by adhering to this policy himself in a very strict manner. On numerous rocks and structures, he carved his edicts in languages used by regular people. So that everyone living in his empire might read, comprehend, and apply the “Dhamma” to their daily life.

Dhamma of Ashoka’s Principles

The Buddha’s teachings served as an inspiration for Ashoka’s Dhamma. His Dhamma’s concepts were quite straightforward and easily understood by the populace. Ashoka was more interested in using persuasion than regulation and imposition to spread this policy. The guiding concepts of his strategy are as follows:

• Ashoka wished for his followers to adhere to the non-violence, or ahimsa concept toward all living things, including people and animals. To strengthen the Empire at the time, which was quite common, he abandoned the idea of war for territorial expansion. Additionally, he preached against harming or killing animals.
• Respect for parents and other adults: He counselled kids to always respect and obey their parents and other adults. Similarly, parents and elders are required to be compassionate and kind toward their young charges.
• He emphasised the need for us to exhibit generosity toward everyone by choosing the way of kindness, love, harmony, and respect. He recommended charitable giving to the poor and turn toward slaves, servants, and animals to achieve this. Respect should be shown for one another. We shouldn’t abuse our position and influence. Instead, we ought to think about how we may be kind to others.
• He proclaimed via his Dhamma that one should appreciate those who practise different religions. He did not advocate joining a specific religion or turning to a specific deity. Furthermore, he granted everyone in his kingdom the freedom to follow their principles and to live their lives as they saw fit, and he vowed that the government would never force a specific religion on its people. Additionally, he favoured peaceful coexistence among all races, religions, and creeds. His goal was to create harmonious relationships between many aspects of society to eventually unite the populace behind shared values and rule a tranquil, huge empire.

Summary

The Dhamma of Ashoka was mostly derived from Buddhist teachings. After the Kalinga conflict, he implemented this policy, which caused the loss of many lives and left him feeling guilty, and sorry for himself. He was able to keep his empire pleasant and harmonious by using the Dhamma. In a sense, he was able to eradicate socio-political instability in his empire by upholding the values of mutual kindness, respect for all religious beliefs, compliance with authority figures, and consideration for younger people. He also rejected superstitious practices and advocated for ahimsa. In essence, he created a secular and liberal empire with this approach, freeing him from the necessity to impose a particular faith on his subjects. 

Frequently Asked Questions

1.Why did Ashoka and Kalinga Fight?
Ans: Kalinga, now Odisha, was a powerful maritime nation. The power might open up commercial opportunities for the Mauryan Empire with nations in Southeast Asia. Ashoka, therefore, desired to incorporate that country within his empire.

2.Why was Ashoka referred to as “Ashoka the Great”?
Ans: One of the kings who became known as the greatest king in Indian history was Ashoka. This was a result of his distinct management style, which allowed him to oversee such a sizable empire while preventing any physical injury to anyone.

3.How does Ashoka’s Dhamma still have value in Modern Society?
Ans: Yes, Ashoka’s Dhamma principle—which advocated a moral way of life centred on showing respect for all living things—is still very much important in today’s culture. It also emphasised the need for tolerance, which is essential for surviving in a nation as varied and multi-religious as India.

Introduction

The Kalinga War is regarded as the bloodiest conflict ever waged. Emperor Ashoka, the most important leader of the Mauryan empire, engaged in the battle. He was the son of Mauryan Empire official Bindusara and the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. Except for the Kalinga region, the Mauryan empire ruled over all of India. The feudal Nanda Empire reigned over the state of Kalinga. Emperor Ashoka launched an invasion of Kalinga to take control of the region after numerous failed efforts. Ashoka engaged in it as his first and final major engagement because of his growing disenchantment with the conflict’s aftermath.

Background and Causes of War

Chandragupta, Bindusara, and Ashoka were the three notable Mauryan emperors. The Mauryan Empire grew during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign, encompassing all of modern India. The Kalinga State, located on the East Coast close to the modern state of Odisha, was the sole sovereign state that could not be captured. The Nanda Empire previously dominated the state of Kalinga until 321 BCE. It achieved independence before the Mauryans took control. Despite numerous attempts by Chandragupta Maurya and Bindusara, the Mauryan Empire was unable to retake Kalinga. After various brutal battles between the brothers, Ashoka has been crowned Emperor and is determined to subjugate Kalinga.

There were many talented, serene, and competent people in the Kalinga state. With a strong navy and numerous ports for trade, the area was likewise prosperous and thriving. It was simpler for them to travel to Southeast Asia to establish economic relations because it was located on the East Coast. The Kalinga state is thought to have been viewed as a threat to the Maurya Empire since it had a good opportunity to obstruct communication between the Mauryan capital, Pataliputra, and the Central Indian region. The Bay of Bengal region, which the Mauryans viewed as another threat, was also brought under Kalinga’s rule. The Mauryans, who governed all of India except for Kalinga, saw it as a matter of political status as well.

Ashoka attempted to negotiate with the King of Kalinga, but he resisted giving up power. In the eighth year of his rule, Ashoka attacked Kalinga because he had no other choice. The Kalinga War ended in 261 BCE, while historians are unsure of when it began.

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Main Battle/Events of the Battle

• Historians concur that the Dhauli Hills were the site of the start of the Kalinga War. The Daya river flows by the Dhauli hills. It is believed that the Daya river in modern-day Odisha, India, was filled with the blood of the massacre victims. 
• A little over 100,000 people died, and Ashoka imprisoned 1,50,000 Kalinga warriors. With 60,000 footmen, 700 war-trained elephants, and 1000 cavalry, the Kalinga army was well-prepared. 
• Compared to the Mauryan military, the Kalinga state’s military strength still seemed insufficient. The Mauryans had about 60,000 warriors, nearly 1700 war horses, and thousands of elephants prepared for battle.
• However, the state of Kalinga engaged in battle with the Mauryans and battled valiantly till the very end. 
• Finally, the Mauryans defeated them with their formidable military might. The Mauryan kingdom was able to acquire Kalinga, fulfilling Ashoka’s ambition.

For more help, you can Refer to Lesson 7 – Ashoka, The Emperor in Social Studies Class 6. Checkout the video Lesson for a better understanding

Significance of the Kalinga War.

• Emperor Ashoka triumphed in the conflict handily, but he was unable to comprehend the carnage he saw. The loss of so many people and the destruction of so much property severely saddened Ashoka. 
• He understood how his insatiable desire for power had rendered him so blind that he had continued to pillage and destroy Kalinga. 
• There weren’t many people left in Kalinga to rule, despite his desire to do so. Ashoka was overcome with sorrow and guilt after seeing thousands of people killed and deported, as well as the suffering, bloodshed, and misfortune of the Kalinga.
• This experience forever altered his heart. He adopted Buddhism and vowed to pursue the Dhamma-Vijaya and Ahimsa (non-violence) paths (win people with Dhamma). 
• This was Ashoka’s first and last significant conflict. The empire’s military growth was subsequently halted, and he instituted a new program of 40 years of rule based on love, peace, non-violence, and harmony.
• In his Edicts, Ashoka recorded his comments on the Kalinga War, saying that 1,50,000 civilians and warriors from both sides perished in the conflict. Additionally, he sculpted images of the Dhamma into the pillars and rocks. He dispatched adherents to various nations to spread the Dhamma and preach Buddhism to advance a non-violent way of life.

Summary

One of the bloodiest and most vicious conflicts in history, the Kalinga war will always be remembered. Emperor Ashoka vowed to invade and conquer Kalinga after numerous attempts to get the independent kingdom of Kalinga included in the vast Mauryan Empire failed. Despite having a powerful army of its own, Kalinga’s army was nothing in comparison to the Mauryan army. In a brutal struggle, the Mauryans subsequently defeated Kalinga. He was sorrowful and repentant after seeing Kalinga’s suffering and devastation. He then decided to spread Buddhism by adhering to the Dhamma and the path of non-violence.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. How did Ashoka come to Power?
Ans. According to popular belief, the ministers of the late monarch Bindusara picked his son Ashoka to succeed him as ruler of the Mauryan Empire. After gaining control, Ashoka killed one of his brothers by burning Susima alive in a pit of charcoal. It’s also thought that he put 99 of his brothers to death following that.

2. How many Edicts were Engraved by Ashoka? What was there in Ashoka’s Edicts?
Ans. Ashoka carved 33 edicts, which are still visible in modern-day India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nepal. In his Edicts, Ashoka outlined his insights, the motivation behind his conversion to Buddhism, the methods he used to spread Buddhism within and outside modern-day India, the moral and social perception of Buddhism, and his contributions to society and the welfare of animals.

3. How many Categories of Edicts can be Found?
Ans. Based on their sizes and their medium, Edicts could be divided into four main categories. Sizes might be major or minor, and a middle size can be either a Rock or a Pillar. The engraving of Minor Edicts came first, then Major ones. Similarly. Before Pillar inscriptions, there were inscriptions on rocks. As a result, there were four different types of edicts: minor rock edicts, minor pillar edicts, major rock edicts, and major pillar edicts.

4. What is Dhamma?
Ans. The Buddha’s teachings, known as Dhamma in Buddhism, discuss learning the skill of letting go of unhappiness and suffering, or dukkha. Buddha taught that enlightenment can be attained through adhering to the Dhamma. To achieve the desired outcome, daily practice is required.

Also Read :

Introduction

The principles of liberty, equality, and democratic rights fueled a yearning for change in the societies of other European nations during the French Revolution. The spread of these ideas throughout Europe gave people in other nations hope that they might speak out against their oppressive, autocratic rulers and motivated them to launch nationalist movements for social change in their nations. However, the concepts of social change varied throughout European nations. Some desired gradual social change, while others wished for radical reform of the social order.

Social Change 

The French Revolution sparked a social upheaval that swept throughout the globe and gave rise to optimism for fundamentally altering how society was organised. Liberal, conservative, and radical political trends were all invited by the need for change in European society.

• Liberals: The group of people aimed to create a new society that would maintain equality between various religious sects and promote religious tolerance in the country. They opposed the hereditary rulers’ disproportionate influence. These liberals also felt that people’s rights should be preserved, and they called for an elected representative form of government free from the influence of rulers and higher officials in terms of how the law is interpreted by an impartial judiciary. 

Liberals supported the principle of equality, but unlike Democrats, they never advocated for the universal adult franchise. Instead of women and members of lower social classes, they preferred that the ability to vote be restricted to the society’s propertied men (poor).

• Radicals: Another group in society that called for a change in the social order was the radicals, although they went about it completely differently than the liberals did. They desired that the majority of the populace elect the government. They supported the women’s suffragette movement, which advocated for the extension of voting rights to women. 

Radicals questioned the advantages accorded to land and factory owners because they were opposed to the concentration of power in the hands of a small number of members of the affluent class and because this was causing inequality in society. In a sense, radicals desired to alter the underlying character of the social order.

• Conservatives: This group was made up of the ruling class, who at first rejected the “change” that liberals and radicals advocated in favour of the status quo, or that things should stay the same. However, with the French Revolution, they were willing to change, albeit slowly, and wished to save some of the traditional institutions in remembrance of the past. As a result, the nineteenth century saw a transformation in the ideological foundation for social development.

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                                                                                Image credit: Flickr

Social Change in Europe

European society underwent significant socio-economic development during the eighteenth century. This resulted from the Industrial Revolution’s expansion of industries, industrial districts, and railroads, which led to the emergence of new cities. On the one hand, this industrialization helped the European economy while also having an impact on society. As a result of this, people moved to newly established cities to work in factories. They were required to work long hours for meager pay. If the industrial job was seasonal or duration-based, unemployment became widespread, which also contributed to issues with sanitation and health.

Because some of these workers were also property owners and bosses, radicals and liberals consistently urged reform in response to the dreadful conditions in which they saw the workers. Instead of just the wealthy, they desired that all facets of society benefit from industrialization. They also thought that an educated and healthy workforce might boost the economy’s prosperity. But the old aristocracy and the Conservative government, which came to power in 1815, were causing them problems since they did not allow liberals and radicals to manage their companies as they desired. Therefore, revolutionaries from many European nations, including France, Germany, Italy, and Russia, attempted to remove the ruling monarchs.

Implications

The following were two significant effects of the social change in Europe throughout the nineteenth century:

The rise of nationalism: The idea of nationalism became more common due to the socioeconomic transformation in Europe. To better the welfare of the populace, new reforms were implemented. Now, nationalist movements are not exclusive to Europe anymore. It was in European colonies where social revolution first emerged.

The coming of socialism: In Europe, socialism began to gain ground because it believed that the existence of private property was the source of all societal ills. Properties and production factors were supposed to be owned collectively under this arrangement. They fantasized about living in a society without classes here. Socialists accused capitalists of being solely concerned with their profit and not at all concerned with the well-being of workers. Therefore, capitalism was viewed as abusing workers.

Summary

After the French Revolution, revolutionary concepts began to spread throughout Europe during the nineteenth century. People began speaking up to abolish the previous social order, in which authority was confined to a small number of socially favored groups. As a result, there was a surge of social upheaval in European nations. People demanded changes in society in various ways, which were known as liberal, radical, and conservative approaches. With the end of monarchies and privileged landowners, these changes ultimately resulted in the emergence of nationalism and socialism throughout Europe.

FAQ’s

1. What was the Industrial Revolution?
Ans. The construction of factories and machinery, together with widespread manufacturing, is referred to as the “Industrial Revolution.” It caused the shift from producing items manually to producing them using machinery.

2. Why did Radicals want a Fundamental Change in Society?
Ans. The radicals were people who belonged to the lower class and had long been taken advantage of by the ruling class. They, therefore sought to end the social stratification in which the lower classes were consistently denied any advantages.

3. What do you understand by Capitalism?
Ans. An economic system known as “capitalism” was one in which private organizations or individuals, as opposed to the government, owned the means of production and the industries.

4. “Social change is Necessary”. How far do you agree with this Statement? Explain.
Ans. Yes, I agree that “social change is important.” As can be seen from the social changes in Europe from the eighteenth to the nineteenth centuries, these changes significantly altered the social structures of those nations. This transformation is unavoidable, and getting rid of ineffective components, enables citizens to take the required stand against social injustice. In a nutshell, societal change empowers people so they can improve society for the coming generations.