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Introduction

Surat in Gujarat, along with Cambay (now Khambut) and later Ahmedabad, served as the center of western trade during the Mughal era. Surat was the entry point for trade with West Asia throughout the Gulf of Ormuz. Surat has sometimes been referred to as the entrance to Mecca due to the large number of pilgrim ships that left. There were several different castes in Surat. At some point in the seventeenth century, Surat was home to factories and warehouses built by the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. Retail and wholesale businesses existed in Surat. They offered cotton garments in these stores. It is important to note that markets for Surat textiles, which are known for their gold ace borders, include West Asia, Africa, and Europe. People arrived at the city from all over the world, and the kingdom supplied them with all of the amenities.

A gateway to the West, Surat

Surat was the hub of Western trade during the Mughal Empire. Surat is said to be the entry point for trade with West Asia over the Strait of Hormuz. It was a multiethnic metropolis where people of all castes and religions lived. In Surat throughout the 17th century, factories and warehouses were built by the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. In Surat, there were a lot of retail and wholesale establishments. These shops sold garments made of cotton. It is significant to note that Surat fabrics with Zari or Gold Ace borders were sold in West Asia, Africa, and Europe. People from all over the world flocked to the city, and the government gave them access to everything they needed. In Surat, the Mahajans or Kathiawad Seths ran a significant banking business. a far-off market like that of Cairo in Egypt.

What kind of trades were practiced in Surat? 

Surat was the hub of Western trade during the Mughal Empire. Surat is said to be the entry point for trade with West Asia over the Strait of Hormuz. It was a multiethnic metropolis where people of all castes and religions lived. In Surat throughout the 17th century, factories and warehouses were built by the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. In Surat, there were a lot of retail and wholesale establishments. These shops sold garments made of cotton. It is significant to note that Surat fabrics with Zari or Gold Ace borders were sold in West Asia, Africa, and Europe. People from all over the world flocked to the city, and the government gave them access to everything they needed. In Surat, the Mahajans or Kathiawad Seths ran a significant banking business. a far-off market like that of Cairo in Egypt.

Its main application was as a metal for coins. In addition, a number of everyday objects were made of copper. Prices for copper in Surat ranged from Rs. 18 to Rs. 22 per mound. The English company sent copper to specific Surat merchants in accordance with a contract.

Describe Surat during the time of Mughal empire

In the Middle Ages, Surat played a significant role as a port city for the Mughal Empire in India, especially in the 17th century. A nation’s seaport is always seen as important since it acts as the centre of its foreign trade. India’s Surat port was regarded at the time as an essential part of the nation’s economic machinery.

In the year 1514 CE, the Portuguese referred to Surat as one of the important cities for trading in various items. This gold mohur was produced at the Surat mint for the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan during the month of Azar. Surat was ruled by the Muslim family of the Mirzas. In order to seize Surat, Emperor Akbar laid siege to it in 1573. The Mirzas gave the Portuguese the place in return for their aid in the battle. After reaching Surat, the Portuguese soldiers made the decision not to confront the formidable imperial force and took a diplomatic stance in front of the Emperor.

The army of the Mughals took control of Surat. Under Akbar, Surat was a significant port city. It got revenue from customs and other dues totaling Rs. 4 lakhs each year. Given the importance of the port, the Emperor designated a Mutasaddi, or revenue.

What led to Surat’s decline?

In the 1750s, the merchants who dominated trade started to declare bankruptcy. Over the course of the 19th century, European businesses increasingly increased their dominance. At first, local courts made a number of concessions to European businesses. Due to their superior organization and access to more resources than their rivals, the businesses were able to monopolize commerce. Local traders were unable to compete with the bigger shipping corporations, which led to a sharp reduction in exports from the ports, which contributed to the decline of Surat and Hooghly. Trade financing through the credit system started to dwindle. In the final few years of the 17th century, trade in the port of Surat decreased from Rs 16 million to Rs 3 million.

New ports like Calcutta and Bombay arose as a result of the fall of the Hugley and the old port of Surat, and India’s colonial power increased. European ships and European businesses handled trade through the new ports of Bombay and Calcutta.

Summary

Different ethnic groups lived in Surat. The city was known for its diversity. The Portuguese, Dutch, and English all had workshops and warehouses in Surat during the 17th century. There were many retail and wholesale stores in Surat. These stores offered cotton clothing. It is important to note that Surat was a major textile market, with people from all over the world coming to the city.The state provided them with all the amenities they needed. The Kathiawad seths were the owners of huge banking institutions in Surat. The far-off markets of Cairo, Basra, Baghdad, and Antwerp all honoured the Surat hundis.

FAQs

1. Where exactly is Masulipatnam?

The town of Masulipatnam is situated on the Krishna River delta. The fishing sector in the town is well-known. The city was well-known for having robust trading links in the 17th century. Masulipatnam was under the hands of the Dutch and English East India Companies, although the Dutch were ultimately successful in establishing a fort.

2. Which Indian city has been referred to “The Diamond City”?

Surat is known as “The Silk City” or “The Diamond City,” and it is one of India’s cleanest cities. Another epithet for it is “The Green City.” Its present is the most vibrant, and its historical past is also the most varied.

3. Where was quicksilver imported from?

An other item that was brought into Surat was quicksilver. Both Europe and China provided the raw materials. There were considerable price fluctuations for the metal in the latter part of the 17th century. The price of quicksilver in 1650 was Rs125 per mound. The large price increase was brought on by China’s supply failing to meet demand. Even though Surat bought the majority of its lead from Europe, the market was closed. Only the local Governor was permitted to buy imports into Surat; all other traders were forbidden.

Introduction

In physics, we measure energy and work in units of Joule, one unit of which is equal to applying 1 Newton of force over a distance of 1 meter. In various objects, applying force or stress leads to the object heating up and the amount of heat produced is equal to the work done. On the other hand, in electrical circuits, it is the flow of current that leads to the generation of heat. The amount of heat generated in electrical circuits is directly proportional to the square of the current passing through them, the resistance of the circuit, and the time for which the current is made to flow. This relation is known as Joule’s law of heating. This article focuses on this law and discusses its concepts and applications.

What is Joule? 

Joule is a unit of measurement for both energy and work. It is defined as the work done by applying a force of one newton over a distance of one meter. When this occurs, one joule of energy is produced. Joule is equivalent to Newton meters. It is important to note that every time mechanical force is applied, an exact equivalent of heat is generated.

Joule’s law of heating

Joule’s law relates the heat generated in an electrical circuit to current, resistance, and time. It states that the heat generated in an electrical component varies directly with the square of the current, the resistance of the circuit, and the duration for which current flows in the equation. Mathematically,

James Joule discovered the equation for power dissipated by a resistor through empirical observation of power, current, and resistance measurements. He found that the power dissipated by a resistor is proportional to the square of the current passing through it. This process is known as Joule heating, where electrical energy is converted into heat by a resistance element. This theory applies to any electrical device designed to generate heat, such as electric heaters and toasters. Joule’s law and Ohm’s law were both discovered empirically by examining real-world data.

The dissipation of power in an electrical circuit simply means that due to the current flow, some power is lost in the form of heat. According to the law of conservation of energy, energy cannot vanish into nothingness. Instead, it is lost to the surroundings. This concept is also used in toasters and heaters. They contain heating elements which have a high wattage and thus, generate enormous amounts of heat. That heat is then radiated to the environment, heating up the room. 

We can derive Joule’s law as follows:

Using this formula, we have:

Joule heating power equation for AC and DC

The equation we have derived for calculating the heat generated in an electrical circuit is equally valid across AC and DC components. Thus, regardless of the nature of current, the heat generated is given by:

However, while dealing with AC components, the value of current becomes dependent on time.

Application of joule’s law of heating

1. Electric fuse

An electric fuse is a small piece of wire that is generally manufactured from a tin alloy and has a specific melting point. It is connected to electrical appliances in series and protects them from damage due to high current.

Electric fuse

When the current passing through the circuit crosses a threshold, the heat generated in the circuit increases the temperature of the fuse wire, which melts and thus, the connection is broken. Thus, the appliance remains safe. There are other applications of Joule’s law as well, which include:

• Electric heater
• Electric iron
• Electric geyser

Summary

Energy and work are measured in units of Joule. 1 J of work is done when an object is made to move a distance of 1 m by applying a force of 1 N. Joule is equivalent to Newton meters.

In electrical circuits, the flow of current leads to the generation of heat, which is related directly to the square of the current, the resistance, and time. This is known as Joule’s law of heating and in this article, we discussed this concept in detail.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the variables that affect heat in a circuit?

As per Joule’s law, heat in a circuit depends on current, resistance, and time.

2. Which device doesn’t follow Joule’s law?

All electric circuits follow Joule’s law. However, in a number of situations, heat generation is an undesired side effect which must be minimized. On the other hand, devices like geysers and irons actually need heat generation.

3. Is the effect of joules heating reversible?

The heat energy dissipated in circuits can not be brought back by reversing the direction of current. That energy is lost to the environment.

4. Do ideal conductors also suffer from heating?

In theory, no. An ideal conductor is one whose resistance is zero and thus, the heat generated in an ideal conductor would be zero.

5. Does voltage change affect heat?

Yes. Changing the voltage applied to a circuit changes the current flowing across it and thus, the amount of heat generated changes.

Introduction

New kingdoms were established in the early mediaeval period. There were both large and small towns founded with the new monarchy. The majority of the settlements were close to a river or a body of water, making it simple for traders to sell their goods there. In the beginning, the rulers taxed the land and captured a certain percentage of the peasants’ harvest. The countryside and rural regions were where it was most common to witness people cultivating their land. The rulers discovered new sources of taxes with the emergence of new towns and rich cities. They began taxing business owners and dealers. Along with the growth of new cities, trade also prospered.

Foreign traders came to purchase and sell their wares, and in order to do so, they were required to pay taxes and customs fees on those goods. Small mandis and hatas, where people from neighbouring villages flocked to sell and purchase goods, may be found in villages. There were streets populated by various craftspeople, including potters, sugar producers, carpenters, blacksmiths, and toddy manufacturers. Samantha erected fortified palaces in the towns and imposed taxes on artisans, traders, and goods during the early period and Zamindars during the later mediaeval era. They occasionally gave local temples the authority to collect taxes.

Taxation for traders

In the early mediaeval era, taxing traders was a crucial way for governments and kings to raise money. Customs duties, often referred to as portoria or teloneum, were the main type of taxes and were imposed on goods entering or departing a certain area. Customs officials posted at ports or along trade routes would frequently collect this charge, which was assessed at a predetermined proportion of the value of the goods being traded.

Trade had a significant role in the governance of the Mauryan kingdom. Trade on land and at sea was significant. We may read about tariffs on the movement of products in Kautilya’s Arthashastra. For the supervision and collection of taxes on the trade routes, employees were assigned.

Due to an increase in commercial activity during the Gupta era, the banking system under the Chief Banker’s management improved. Because weavers and printers had to pay half the cost of their products in taxes, traders were subject to substantial tax rates. Taxes had to be paid to the king by several percent.

In addition to import duties, traders had to pay various taxes, such as the poll tax, which was a set sum paid by each individual, and the hearth tax, which was dependent on the number of fireplaces in a home or company.

Trade flourished throughout the Mughal era, and there were three levels of trade:

• Local trade
• Inter-Regional trade.
• Foreign trade.

Some types of taxes were levied at each of these levels. The tax levied on goods was not uniform; it varied depending on the value of the commodity. The traders who engaged in overseas commerce were subject to the majority of taxes. The Mughal traders were so wealthy that they could afford large properties and a luxurious lifestyle.  At that time, even nobles received loans from powerful merchants, who also contributed a sizable share of taxes to the emperor and participated in governance. Despite the impression that the emperor’s taxation of merchants was mild, they nevertheless had to pay high taxes to the local chieftains. 

Jahangir was one of the emperors who eliminated the customs taxes on goods traded with Kabul and Qandahar. Indian trade with West Asia experienced a golden age during the Mughal era.

Manufacturers’ taxes

In the mediaeval kingdom, there were separate taxes for sectors and manufacturers. A weaver in Rajasthan was required to pay one man of yarn per year. One rupee is to be paid annually on each carding bow by the cotton carder. 

Weavers in Maharashtra were required to pay a tax of one-fourth of a taka per loom. A barber in Vijayanagara was required to pay 1 visa each day. A cobbler in Rajasthan was required to provide a pair of shoes every month, while producers of soap and oil were required to pay a predetermined percentage of their sales as tax. In the Vijayanagara kingdom in south India, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, silversmiths, and carpenters were all required to pay 5 panama every year. 

Taxation of trade income

Income from trade taxes was the second-largest source of revenue for emperors during the mediaeval era. The land tax and agricultural taxes were the main sources of income for the mediaeval kingdoms. The emperor took control over half of the cultivation during the Mughal Empire. 

Emperors levied taxes on a wide variety of goods and industries. Both kinds and cash were used to pay these levies.  Jaggery, oil, cotton, dye, thread, clothing, salt, coconut oil, butter, and many more items were subject to taxes in kind in Rajasthan in the tenth century. Earlier taxes were mostly paid in kind. All such taxes were collected by the local zamindars and samantas.

Summary

One of the earliest procedures carried out by any government is taxation. Indian monarchs and chieftains levied taxes on land, agriculture, and trades from the Ancient through the Mediaeval periods. The local chieftains and samantas used the taxes from the Market as a source of revenue. Each region had its own tax system; some accepted payments in certain forms, while others only accepted cash. Numerous Indian societies had a history of being traders, and trading was the foundation of their entire way of life. During the Mughal era, a number of large merchants rose to prominence who engaged in overseas commerce and amassed enormous fortunes. Local groups including the banjaras, Chhetiars, Marwari Oswals, Hindu Baniyas, and Muslim Bohras were small traders.

Frequently Asked Question

 Q1. What was Chauth and Sardeshukhi?

Ans: Shivaji introduced the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi land tax. Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were equal to one-fourth and one-tenth of the total amount of goods produced in the region, respectively. 

Q2 Why did Kabul and Qandahar grow in importance as trading hubs in the sixteenth century?

Ans: Because both of these places were on the silk road and produced high-quality dry fruits, carpets, and horses, they gained political and economic significance.

Q3.  What do you mean by guilds?

Ans: Guilds were groups of dealers and businesspeople that looked out for one another’s interests. To safeguard the traders, guilds were established, and they had an impact on the emperor’s court.

Introduction to Thanjavur

In mediaeval India, towns served as the centre of each empire. In the ninth century, large towns and cities began to appear. Large emirates like the Cholas, Chalukyas, and Pallavas ruled at that time. Each kingdom featured several cities, which were divided into categories based on their functions. Some towns served as administrative centres, where monarchs and nobles lived and oversaw all administrative operations. Other classifications included commercial, port, temple, and other types of towns. The majority of towns had a market and were defended. Due to the fact that cities were one of the kingdom’s main sources of income, the monarchs gave them particular protection. Towns occasionally served more than one purpose. Thanjavur served as the Chola empire’s administrative centre and a popular pilgrimage destination because of the several well-known temples and shrines that were located there.

Administrative Centres

Vijayalaya established the Chola kingdom in the year 850 CE. One of the strongest kingdoms at the period was the Chola empire. All of southern India, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives came under its rule. Thanjavur had been taken from the Pallavas by Vijayalaya. Rajaraja and Rajendra Chola were the greatest kings of the Chola kingdom. 

Thanjavur was chosen as the Cholas’ capital. To commemorate their conquests, the Chola monarchs erected several temples. The Rajarajeshwar and Brihadeshwara temples, which Rajaraja Chola erected, are two of the most well-known temples. King and queen sculptures and images were frequently erected on the grounds of temples by the Cholas. 

The administrative zones of Thanjavur, Thiruvaiyaru, Pattukkottai, and Peravurani are separated by Thanjavur, which serves as the district’s administrative centre. Each zone has a number of cities and villages under its control. The Thanjavur Municipal Corporation, which manages the city’s civic administration, is also based in the city.

Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centers

Towns that were constructed around a particular temple were known as temple towns. These towns were often guarded, and social and economic activity were tied to the temples. Thanjavur is a model temple town in every way. It is centred on the Brihadeshwara temple, which Rajaraja Chola constructed in the eleventh century. The Chola empire’s capital was the town of Thanjavur. 

Kings built temples to honour their victories and to show their adoration for the gods. Grants and lands were given to the temples. Temples were given permission to manage their own affairs, collect taxes from the surrounding area, and perform rituals, festivals, and provide food for pilgrims. Additionally, travellers and nobility gave donations to the temples. 

Temple towns and pilgrimage centres are significant religious destinations that attract a large number of devotees and tourists from all over the world. A temple town is a city or a town that is primarily known for its numerous temples, which are the major tourist attractions. These temple towns are often considered to be sacred sites, and they have a rich cultural and religious heritage. Thanjavur, also known as Tanjore, is a prominent temple town in Tamil Nadu, India, known for its Brihadeeswara Temple, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Pilgrimage centres, on the other hand, are places that are considered holy and are often associated with specific religious beliefs or practices. These centres attract a large number of devotees who come to offer prayers, seek blessings and participate in various religious rituals. Some of the famous pilgrimage centres in India include the Char Dham Yatra, the Kumbh Mela, and the Amarnath Yatra.

Overall, temple towns and pilgrimage centres play a vital role in the religious and cultural life of people, and they contribute significantly to the tourism industry in the country.

Thanjavur is home to several temple towns and pilgrimage centres that attract devotees from all over the world. Some of the famous ones are:

Brihadeeswarar Temple – The Lord Shiva-dedicated temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is renowned for its 12-foot-tall statue of Nandi and its imposing gopuram (gateway tower). (the bull).

The Thiruvanaikaval Temple – It is situated near Trichy, 55 km away from Thanjavur. It is devoted to Lord Shiva and is renowned for the rock-cut cave temple and its underground water streams.

Navagraha Temples –  Thanjavur is home to a number of temples honouring the nine celestial bodies, or navagrahas. The “City of Temples” in Kumbakonam is where the temples are situated.

Alangudi Temple – The Lord Guru (Jupiter) temple at Alangudi, which is 45 km from Thanjavur, is devoted to him. It is thought to be among the nine Navagraha temples.

Summary

Numerous new kingdoms and empires led to the establishment of numerous towns and cities. In mediaeval India, many types of cities existed. Some of them were towns with administrative, commercial, port, or temple towns. Based on these qualities, towns were classified. When some people began progressively gathering close to the temple, the town of the temple was born. Priests, labourers, artisans, and anybody else who provided services to pilgrims and looked after temple management comprised these villages. India’s eighth-century temple town was called Thanjavur. The Kingdom of Chola founded it, and it went on to become one of India’s most well-known towns. In addition to serving as an administrative town, Thanjavur also served as a temple town. People from neighbouring villages also benefited from the trade as Thanjavur’s market expanded. Kings gave temples grants, and they also possessed their own land that allowed them to levy taxes on.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q.1 How did temples affect urbanisation?

People made pilgrimages to temples on a regular basis, and certain communities—priests, craftspeople, workers, etc.—lived close to the temples to serve the needs of the pilgrims. The neighbourhood came together, and over time, it expanded and took the shape of a town. These towns were significant for trade and business.

Q2. What Thanjavur temple towns are well-known?

Particularly its temple towns, Thanjavur is renowned for its extensive cultural and architectural history. The most well-known temple towns in Thanjavur are Pattukkottai, Kumbakonam, Darasuram, Thiruvaiyaru, and Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

Q3. What purpose do the pilgrimage sites serve in Thanjavur?

For millennia, Thanjavur has been a significant hub for Hinduism and Jainism, with several pilgrimage sites drawing tens of thousands of pilgrims each year. These places, which are admired for their beautiful temples, festivals, and ceremonies, are said to be of spiritual importance.

Introduction

During ancient times, building temples, tanks, and mosques were significant activities in various civilizations. These structures were not only places of worship but also served as cultural and social centres. Temples were built to honour and offer prayers to the deities, while tanks were constructed to provide water for irrigation and daily use. Mosques were built as places of worship for followers of Islam. Building these structures required immense resources, and it was often seen as a mark of the ruler’s wealth and power. The construction of these buildings was also a community effort, bringing people together and reinforcing social bonds. Today, these ancient structures stand as symbols of our rich cultural heritage and architectural prowess.

Building Temples, Tanks, and Mosques

In order to display its power and wealth, a mediaeval Indian empire built architectural wonders. Tanks, mosques, and other structures were among these monuments. The ruler frequently adopted the name of God and built the temple in his honour. This aided in his portrayal of himself as being on par with God. Rajarajeshwara Temple is an example.  However, Muslim leaders asserted that they were the “Shadow of God.” Mosques have geometrical patterns and floral carvings on their walls. While the temples had pictures of the gods, kings, priests, and occasionally even regular people.  Water provision was regarded as a noble act. In order to give water to the populace, Sultana Iltutmish constructed the “Hauz-i-Sultani” or the King’s reservoir outside Delhi-i-Kuhna.

Temple Construction in the Early Eleventh Century

Early eleventh-century India saw a substantial change in the architectural style and architecture of temple construction. An innovative form of temple architecture that was characterised by towering vimanas (gopurams), complex carvings, and magnificent mandapas emerged under the Chola dynasty in the southern region of the country. (pillared halls). A famous example of this design is the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur, which was erected by King Rajaraja Chola I. Regional variations in temple architecture also began to appear at this time, representing the diversity and depth of Indian culture.

Temple Construction

Ashoka attempted to grow his empire by spreading nonviolent Dhamma throughout his country. To sow the Dhamma and Buddhism, he built pillars across his realm. Temples eventually replaced pillars as labour became more skilled and empires grew wealthier. 

Dhamma and Buddhism

The temples were constructed in order to: 

• Promote the emperor’s religion. 
• To illustrate the empire’s wealth and strength. 
• To experience the splendour of the realm, people travel from all over the country to the temples.
• Priests that were selected by kings were in charge of these temples. 
• Numerous yajnas are performed by the priests and kings, which validate the emperor’s rule.
• Temples served as the town’s centre for education and cross-cultural interactions. 
• It occasionally served as a secret royal treasury to preserve the kingdom’s wealth.

Gardens, Tombs and Forts

Gardens, tombs, and forts were important elements of Indian architecture and culture during the Islamic era. Islamic emperors like the Mughals integrated and integrated Persian and Central Asian architectural forms into Indian traditions. While tombs were constructed as mausoleums for kings and their family, gardens, like the iconic Mughal Gardens, were used as emblems of power and elegance. Forts were built for tactical and military reasons as well as to serve as luxurious royal residences. In addition to being functional architectural marvels, these structures also displayed the artistic and cultural fusion of Indian and Islamic cultures.

The Red Fort 

The Red Fort in Delhi is one example of the gardens, tombs, and forts constructed under the Islamic rulers in India. The Red Fort, constructed in the 17th century by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, housed the Mughal monarchs for about 200 years. Beautiful gardens, elaborate tombs, and fortified walls with bastions and gates are all part of the fort’s exquisite architecture. Famous for its gold and silver throne, the fort’s Diwan-i-Khas or “Hall of Private Audience” features pavilions constructed of marble that have been beautifully carved. The Red Fort, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, provides proof of the Mughal Empire’s superior architectural talent. 

Summary

The kings of the Islamic kingdoms erected beautiful structures including mosques, tanks, and temples. These structures served both political and religious objectives. Tanks were constructed to store water for drinking and agriculture, and temples were frequently converted into mosques. Mosques were created to serve as both places of worship and centres of the local community. These buildings frequently included elaborate carvings, calligraphy, and mosaics as decorations, demonstrating the Islamic rulers’ artistic and architectural brilliance.

FAQs

Q1. Why were mosques, tanks, and temples constructed during the Islamic era?

Temples, tanks, and mosques were constructed under the Islamic monarchs for a variety of purposes. Temples were constructed to accommodate the local population’s religious customs, and water storage tanks were created to provide a steady supply of water for the locals. In contrast, mosques were constructed as houses of prayer for Muslims and frequently served as the hub of Islamic knowledge and culture.

Q2. What kinds of patterns can be seen on the Taj Mahal’s walls?

Ans. The Taj Mahal’s walls consist of pietra dura designs, similar to the majority of Islamic structures. In addition to other Indo-Islamic designs, it includes floral patterns and geometrical patterns.

Q3. Which primary aspect of Buddhism practices idol worship of the Buddha and his image?

Ans. Buddhism has historically been divided into the Hinayana and Mahayana major sects. The Mahayana among them worships Buddha statues and other idols.

अनुच्छेद को अंग्रेजी भाषा में पैराग्राफ कहा जाता है।

अनुच्छेद के द्वारा एक विचार को शब्दों में व्यक्त किया जाता है। यह अनुच्छेद एक विषय से जुड़ा हुआ होता है। इसमें किसी विषय से संबंधित सीमित शब्दों में अपने विचारों को व्यक्त किया जाता है। 

अनुच्छेद में केवल विषय से संबंधित बातें ही लिखी जाती है। अनावश्यक बातों को अनुच्छेद में नही लिखा जाता है। इसमें अपने भावों को व्यक्त किया जाता है।

अनुच्छेद लिखने के लिए कुछ बातों का ध्यान में रखना जरूरी होता है। जिससे अनुच्छेद को एक सुसंगठित रूप मिल सके। इसलिए अनुच्छेद-लेखन की कुछ विशेषताएँ होती हैं 

1)अनुच्छेद लेखन अपने आप में पूरा होता है। यह किसी प्रकार के निबंध का सार या निष्कर्ष नहीं होता है। अनुच्छेद को लिखने के लिए इसे कोई सार नही देना पड़ता है। 

2)अनुच्छेद को निश्चित रूपरेखा में नही लिखा जाता जाता है। इसमें सिर्फ दिए गए विषय को केंद्र मानकर उसके बारे में लिखा जाता है और उसी का विस्तार किया जाता है।

3)अनुच्छेद में किसी बाहरी प्रसंग का प्रयोग नहीं किया जाता है। सभी प्रकार से केवल विषय से संबंधित जानकारी और अपने विचारों को उसमे लिखा जाता है।

4)अनुच्छेद लिखने समय उसकी स्पष्टता का ध्यान रखना चाहिए। इसका का आकार सीमित होता है। इसमें अलंकारिता और अनावश्यक शब्दों का प्रयोग नहीं किया जाता है। भाषा में सहजता का प्रवाह होता है।

अनुच्छेद अलग अलग प्रकार के लिखे जाते हैं। जिसके द्वारा अलग अलग विधाओं और विषयों का वर्णन किया जाता है। इसलिए अनुचेदो को मख्य रूप लेखन के चार प्रकार है। 

              1)वर्णनात्मक

              2)कथात्मक

             3) व्याख्यात्मक

             4)प्रेरक

1)वर्णनात्मक:  यह अनुच्छेद किसी एक विशेष विषय को केंद्र में रखकर लिखे जाते हैं। यह किसी निर्जीव और सजीव पदार्थ का वर्णन करते हैं। इस प्रकार का लेखन मूल रूप से विषय का वर्णन करता है। यह वर्णन किसी यात्रा, कोई अद्भुत दृश्य, कोई घटना, किसी पौराणिक कथा का हो सकता है। 

कथात्मक: इस प्रकार का लेखन मूल रूप से एक कहानी की तरह व्यक्त किए जाते है। यह अनुच्छेद कहानी भी हो सकते है। इसका लेखन क्रमबद्ध होता है। किसी स्थिति का वर्णन करने के लिए भी कथात्मक अनुच्छेद का प्रयोग किया जाता है। इसमें वर्णन करते समय इसकी सभी घटनाओं को क्रम से व्यक्त किया जाता है। जी घटना पहले घटित होती है उसका वर्णन पहले ही किया जाता है। एक सुसंगठित ढंग से इसमें विषय का वर्णन किया जाता है। इसमें विषय केंद्रित होता है।

व्याख्यात्मक: व्याख्यात्मक अनुच्छेदों में कोई घटना क्यों हुई, कैसे हुई इसका वर्णन किया जाता है। इसमें घटनाओं और प्रक्रियाओं के बीच संबंधों को व्याख्या की जाती है। इस प्रकार का लेखन किसी चीज़ की परिभाषा है। इसमें किसी घटना के विभिन्न पहलुओं का वर्णन किया जाता है।

प्रेरक: इस प्रकार के लेखन ऐसे विषय पर किए जाते हैं जिसमें कोई मजबूत तर्क दिया जाता है। जिस तर्क पर पाठक वर्ग भी अपनी सहमति देता है। इसका उद्देश्य दर्शकों को लेखक के दृष्टिकोण को स्वीकार करना है। ये ज्यादातर शिक्षकों द्वारा एक मजबूत तर्क प्रदान करने के लिए उपयोग किए जाते हैं। इस प्रकार के लिखे गए अनुच्छेद तर्कपूर्ण होते है। जिनका संबंध वास्तविकता से भी होता है।इस प्रकार के अनुच्छेद को बारे में आप एक सटीक राय या तर्क दे सकते हैं।

इस तरह विभिन्न प्रकार के अनुच्छेद के द्वारा किसी भी विषय पर अपने विचार व्यक्त कर सकते हैं। किसी भी प्रकार के अनुच्छेद लिखकर अपने विचारों की अभिव्यक्ति कर सकते हैं।

अनुच्छेद किसी भी एक प्रमुख शैली में नहीं लिखे जाते है। इनके लिखने के लिए अलग शैली का भी प्रयोग किया जा सकता है। यह भावात्मक शैली, समास शैली, व्यंग्य शैली, तरंग शैली, चित्र शैली, विचारात्मक शैली, विव्रणात्मक शैली, व्यास-शैली, तर्कपूर्ण शैली, वर्णनात्मक शैली, सामान्य बोलचाल की शैली का प्रयोग कर सकता है। जिस भी शैली में आप अपने विचारों को व्यक्ति करने में सरलता अनुभव करते हैं, आप उस शैली का प्रयोग अपने अनुच्छेद में कर सकते हैं।

अनुच्छेद अनेक प्रकार के विषयों पर लिखे जाते हैं। अनुच्छेद लिखने का विषय कोई भी हो सकता है। कोई भी सटीक विषय अनुच्छेद का नहीं होता है। यह अनुच्छेद होली का त्यौहार, एक अद्भुत दृश्य, मेरी पहली यात्रा, मेरी प्यारी डायरी, मेरा पहला नवरोज आदि किसी भी विषय पर अनुच्छेद लिखे जा सकते हैं।

अधिकतर पूछे गए प्रश्न–:

1)अनुच्छेद किसे कहते हैं?

  उत्तर:अनुच्छेद को अंग्रेजी भाषा में पैराग्राफ कहा जाता है। अनुच्छेद के द्वारा एक विचार को शब्दों में व्यक्त किया जाता है। यह अनुच्छेद एक विषय से जुड़ा हुआ होता है। इसमें किसी विषय से संबंधित सीमित शब्दों में अपने विचारों को व्यक्त किया जाता है। 

2)अनुच्छेद के कितने प्रकार होते हैं?

  उत्तर:अनुच्छेद अलग अलग प्रकार के लिखे जाते हैं। जिसके द्वारा अलग अलग विधाओं और विषयों का वर्णन किया जाता है। इसलिए अनुचेदो को मख्य रूप लेखन के चार प्रकार है। 

              1)वर्णनात्मक

              2)कथात्मक

             3) व्याख्यात्मक

             4)प्रेरक

3)अनुच्छेद को कोई दो विशेषताएं बताएं?

  उत्तर:अनुच्छेद में किसी बाहरी प्रसंग का प्रयोग नहीं किया जाता है। सभी प्रकार से केवल विषय से संबंधित जानकारी और अपने विचारों को उसमे लिखा जाता है।

अनुच्छेद लिखने समय उसकी स्पष्टता का ध्यान रखना चाहिए। इसका का आकार सीमित होता है। इसमें अलंकारिता और अनावश्यक शब्दों का प्रयोग नहीं किया जाता है। भाषा में सहजता का प्रवाह होता है।

4)प्रेरक अनुच्छेद किसे कहते है?

उत्तर:इस प्रकार के लेखन ऐसे विषय पर किए जाते हैं जिसमें कोई मजबूत तर्क दिया जाता है। जिस तर्क पर पाठक वर्ग भी अपनी सहमति देता है। इसका उद्देश्य दर्शकों को लेखक के दृष्टिकोण को स्वीकार करना है। ये ज्यादातर शिक्षकों द्वारा एक मजबूत तर्क प्रदान करने के लिए उपयोग किए जाते हैं। इस प्रकार के लिखे गए अनुच्छेद तर्कपूर्ण होते है। जिनका संबंध वास्तविकता से भी होता है।

5)वर्णनात्मक अनुच्छेद किसे कहते है?

 उत्तर:यह अनुच्छेद किसी एक विशेष विषय को केंद्र में रखकर लिखे जाते हैं। यह किसी निर्जीव और सजीव पदार्थ का वर्णन करते हैं। इस प्रकार का लेखन मूल रूप से विषय का वर्णन करता है। यह वर्णन किसी यात्रा, कोई अद्भुत दृश्य, कोई घटना, किसी पौराणिक कथा का हो सकता है। 

6)अनुच्छेद लेखन का प्रारूप क्या है?

अनुच्छेद लेखन का प्रारूप निम्न प्रकार है:

प्रस्तावना: अनुच्छेद की शुरुआत में, विषय का परिचय दें। यहां विषय के महत्व को संक्षेप में बताना चाहिए।

विषय का विस्तार: अगले कदम में, विषय के विभिन्न पहलुओं को विस्तार से समझाएँ। विषय के बारे में महत्वपूर्ण जानकारी और तथ्य यहां प्रस्तुत करें।

उदाहरण या केस स्टडी: अपने विषय को स्पष्ट करने के लिए उदाहरण या केस स्टडी का उपयोग करें। यह अनुच्छेद को और रोचक और समझने योग्य बनाएगा।

महत्वपूर्ण बिंदु: अनुच्छेद में विषय के महत्वपूर्ण बिंदुओं को उल्लेख करें। यह वाचक को विषय की सारांश देने में मदद करेगा।

निष्कर्ष: अंत में, अपने विचारों और विषय पर किए गए विश्लेषण का संक्षेप में सारांश दें। इसे संक्षेप में और स्पष्ट रूप से प्रस्तुत करने का प्रयास करें।

इस प्रारूप का पालन करके, आप एक संगठित और आकर्षक अनुच्छेद लेखन का निर्माण कर सकते ह

हिंदी के किसी भी वाक्य में लिंग, वचन, कारक, संज्ञा, सर्वनाम , विशेषण, पुनरुक्ति और पदक्रम आदि से संबंधित गलतियों या अशुद्धियों को दूर कर शुद्ध वाक्य बनाना अशुद्ध वाक्यों का संशोधन कहलाता है। इन सभी की अशुद्धियों के कारण एक वाक्य का पुरान अर्थ नही निकल पाता है। इसके अर्थ में अनर्थ हो जाता है।

हिंदी के वाक्यों में निम्नलिखित आधारों में अशुद्धियां मिलती है।

वाक्यों में संज्ञा व सर्वनाम संबंधी अशुद्धियां का संशोधन निम्न प्रकार से किया जाता है–:

जब किसी वाक्य में संज्ञा या सर्वनाम शब्दों का प्रयोग गलत किया जाता है तो वहां और उस संज्ञा और सर्वनाम की अशुद्धियों को ठीक किया जाता है।

अशुद्ध वाक्य-  हम उसका नहीं काम किया।

शुद्ध वाक्य- हमने उसका नहीं काम किया।

अशुद्ध वाक्य– दनेश को चोट लगा

शुद्ध वाक्य– दिनेश को चोट लगी।

अशुद्ध वाक्य- राहल मेरी दोस्त है।

शुद्ध वाक्य- राहुल मेरा दोस्त है ।

अशुद्ध वाक्य– बच्चा ने क्रिकेट खेली।

शुद्ध वाक्य- बच्चों ने क्रिकेट खेला।

2.- लिंग संबंधी अशुद्धियां का वाक्यों में संशोधन–:

वाक्यों में जब लिंग के आधार पर अशुद्धियां होती है। जहां पर गलत लिंग का प्रयोग किया जाता है, वहां लिंग संबंधी अशुद्धि होती है, जिसे शुद्ध किया जाता है।

अशुद्ध वाक्य- मोहन की पिता जी आएंगे।

शुद्ध वाक्य– मोहन के पिताजी आएंगे।

अशुद्ध वाक्य- उसने लस्सी पी लिया

शुद्ध वाक्य – उसने लस्सी पी ली।

अशुद्ध वाक्य – राजिया सुल्तान एक योद्धा था

शुद्ध वाक्य – राजिया सुल्तान एक योद्धा थी।

अशुद्ध वाक्य – दूध सेहत के लिए अच्छी होती है।

शुद्ध वाक्य–  दूध सेहत के लिए अच्छा होता है।

3.- वचन संबंधी अशुद्धियां का वाक्यों में संशोधन–:

जिन वाक्यों में वचन के आधार पर गलतियां या अशुद्धियां पाई जाती है, वहां पर वचन संबंधी अशुद्धियां होती है। इसमें बहुवचन के स्थान पर एक वचन और एकवचन के स्थान पर बहुवचन बना दिया जाता है, जिससे वाक्य अशुद्ध हो जाता है।

अशुद्ध वाक्य– हम परिवार में 8 सदस्य हैं।

शुद्ध वाक्य – हमारे परिवार में 8 सदस्य हैं।

अशुद्ध वाक्य – कक्षा में आज 30 बच्चा उपस्थित था

शुद्ध वाक्य – कक्षा में आज 30 बच्चे उपस्थित थे।

अशुद्ध वाक्य– खेल के मैदान में 5 बच्चा खेल रहा है।

शुद्ध वाक्य -खेल के मैदान में 5 बच्चे खेल रहे हैं।

अशुद्ध वाक्य– घर के सामने बहुत सारा लोग जमा हो गया था

शुद्ध वाक्य– घर के सामने बहुत सारे लोग जमा हो गए थे।

4.- कारक संबंधी अशुद्धियां का वाक्यों में संशोधन–:

जब वाक्यों में गलत कारक का प्रयोग किया जाता है, जिससे वाक्य का अर्थ नहीं निकल पाता है, वहां पर कारक संबंधी अशुद्धियां होती है।

अशुद्ध वाक्य – तुम खाना खाया है

शुद्ध वाक्य –  तुमने खाना खाया है

अशुद्ध वाक्य – मोहन सुरेश का पढ़ा रहा है।

शुद्ध वाक्य – मोहन सुरेश को पढ़ा रहा है।

अशुद्ध वाक्य – डॉक्टर को दवाई दी।

शुद्ध वाक्य– डॉक्टर ने दवाई दी।

अशुद्ध वाक्य– पेड़ में से फल तोड़ लो

शुद्ध वाक्य- पेड़ से फल तोड़ लो

5.पद क्रम संबंधी अशुद्धियां का वाक्यों में संशोधन–:

जब वाक्य में कोई क्रम नहीं होता है और वाक्य का कोई अर्थ नहीं निकल पाता है पद अपने अपने स्थान पर नहीं होते है अर्थात जहां पर वाक्य अर्थपूर्ण नहीं होता है, वहां पर पद क्रम संबंधित अशुद्धियां होती है।

अशुद्ध वाक्य- हवा चल रही है गर्म आज।

शुद्ध वाक्य -आज गर्म हवा चल रही है।

अशुद्ध वाक्य– धो दिए मैंने मैने कपड़े सारे

शुद्ध वाक्य – मैंने सारे कपड़े धो दिए।

अशुद्ध वाक्य- श्याम की है परीक्षा आज।

शुद्ध वाक्य – आज श्याम की परीक्षा है

अशुद्ध वाक्य- स्कूल में डांस मैने किया आज।

शुद्ध वाक्य- आज मैंने स्कूल में डांस किया।

6.- क्रिया विशेषण संबंधी अशुद्धियां:-

जिन वाक्यों में विशेषण अपनी क्रिया के साथ नही लगता है अर्थात जब विशेषण करिए से पहले प्रयोग नहीं होता उसके स्थान पर कोई अलग शब्द लगा दिया जाता हैं,वहां पर क्रिया विशेषण संबंधी अशुद्धियां होती है।

अशुद्ध वाक्य- यह घर तो बहुत ही सुंदर है।

शुद्ध वाक्य- यह घर बहुत सुंदर है।

अशुद्ध वाक्य- हमें जीवन भर तक आजीवन साथरहना है।

शुद्ध वाक्य– हमें आजीवन मेंरे साथ रहना है।

अशुद्ध वाक्य-आज सारा दिन भर तेज बारिश होती रही।

शुद्ध वाक्य-आज दिन भर तेज बारिश होती रही।

7.पुनरुक्ति संबंधी अशुद्धियां का वाक्यों में संशोधन–: 

जब वाक्य में एक शब्द एक से अधिक बार आता है जिसके प्रयोग करने की जरूरत नहीं होती है, वहां पर एक ही शब्द का  अधिक बार प्रयोग करने से पुनरूक्ति संबंधी अशुद्धियां होती है।

अशुद्ध वाक्य – सोमवार के दिन मुझे विद्यालय जाना है।

शुद्ध वाक्य – सोमवार को मुझे विद्यालय जाना है।

अशुद्ध वाक्य – महाराणा प्रताप बहुत वीर व्यक्ति थे।

शुद्ध वाक्य – महाराणा प्रताप बहुत वीर थे।

अशुद्ध वाक्य- अमित तो केवल एक मौका मात्र चाहिए।

शुद्ध वाक्य – अमित  को मात्र एक मौकाचाहिएं।

अशुद्ध वाक्य – तानिया को शाम के समय से बुखार है।

शुद्ध वाक्य- तानिया को शाम से बुखार है।

अधिकतर पूछे गए प्रश्न–:

1.अशुद्ध वाक्यों का संशोधन से आप क्या समझते हैं?

उत्तर: 

हिंदी के किसी भी वाक्य में लिंग, वचन, कारक, संज्ञा, सर्वनाम , विशेषण, पुनरुक्ति और पदक्रम आदि से संबंधित गलतियों या अशुद्धियों को दूर कर शुद्ध वाक्य बनाना अशुद्ध वाक्यों का संशोधन कहलाता है। इन सभी की अशुद्धियों के कारण एक वाक्य का पुरान अर्थ नही निकल पाता है। इसके अर्थ में अनर्थ हो जाता है।

2.अशुद्ध वाक्यों में संशोधन कितने प्रकार से होता है?

उत्तर:हिंदी के वाक्यों में निम्नलिखित आधारों में   अशुद्धियां मिलती है।

1.- संज्ञा व सर्वनाम संबंधी अशुद्धियां

2.- लिंग संबंधी अशुद्धियां

3.- वचन संबंधी अशुद्धियां

4.- कारक संबंधी अशुद्धियां

5.- पद क्रम संबंधी अशुद्धियां

6.- क्रियाविशेषण संबंधी अशुद्धियां

7.- पुनरुक्ति संबंधी अशुद्धियां

3. वचन संबंधी अशुद्धियां कैसे होती है?

उत्तर:जिन वाक्यों में वचन के आधार पर गलतियां या अशुद्धियां पाई जाती है, वहां पर वचन संबंधी अशुद्धियां होती है। इसमें बहुवचन के स्थान पर एक वचन और एकवचन के स्थान पर बहुवचन बना दिया जाता है, जिससे वाक्य अशुद्ध हो जाता है।

4.पुनरूक्ति संबंधी अशुद्धियां कैसे होती है?

उत्तर:जब वाक्य में एक शब्द एक से अधिक बार आता है जिसके प्रयोग करने की जरूरत नहीं होती है, वहां पर एक ही शब्द का  अधिक बार प्रयोग करने से पुनरूक्ति संबंधी अशुद्धियां होती है।

5.गौरव ने मैच जीती।

दिए गए वाक्य में अशुद्धियों का संशोधन करें।

उत्तर: दिए गए वाक्य में अशुद्धियों का संशोधन निम्न प्रकार से होगा– 

गौरव ने मैच जीता।

काल का अर्थ समय होता है, इसलिए क्रिया के जिस रूप से किसी काम के होने या उसके करने के समय का पता चलता है, उसे काल कहते है।

जिससे कार्य समय का पता चले उस समय को काल कहते हैं।

उदाहरण–: 1)सीता ने अपना कार्य कल पूरा कर दिया था।

                   2) सीमा अभी खेलने गई है।

कौन सा कार्य किस काल में किया गया है अर्थात किस समय में कार्य किया गया है यह जानने के लिए 

काल को तीन भेदों में बांटा गया हैं

1. वर्तमान काल
2. भूत काल
3. भविष्य काल

1.वर्तमान काल

क्रिया के जिस रूप के द्वारा किसी कार्य के वर्तमान समय अर्थात अभी जो समय चल रहा है में पूरा होने का बोध होता है। उसे वर्तमान काल कहते है। इसमें कार्य पूरा भी हो जाता है और कार्य चल भी रहा होता है।

उदाहरण–: मोहन मैच खेल रहा है।

             अमित ने अभी वोट डाली है।

            रागिनी गाना गा रही है।

वर्तमान काल के पाँच भेद होते है

(i)सामान्य वर्तमानकाल

(ii)अपूर्ण वर्तमानकाल

(iii)पूर्ण वर्तमानकाल

(iv)संदिग्ध वर्तमानकाल

(v)तत्कालिक वर्तमानकाल

(vi)संभाव्य वर्तमानकाल

(i) सामान्य वर्तमानकाल

 यह  क्रिया का वह रूप है जिसमें क्रिया के होने का समय वर्तमान काल में होता है। इसकी पहचान वाक्य के अंत में ता, ते, ती आदि शब्दों के आने से भी होती है।

उदाहरण–:    1)बच्चा बॉल से खेलता है’।

                  2) वह पुस्तक पढ़ती है।

               3) बच्चे फूल तोड़ते है।

(ii) अपूर्ण वर्तमानकाल

 क्रिया के जिस रूप से यह पता चकता है की कार्य अभी पूरा नहीं हुआ है वह चल रहा है, उसे अपूर्ण वर्तमान कहते हैं। इसकी अन्य पहचान वाक्य के अंत में रहा है, रहे है, रही है आदि शब्दों के प्रयोग से की जाती है।

उदाहरण के लिए– ‘मोहन विद्यालय जा रहा है। 

                        प्रिया खाना खा रही है।

(iii) पूर्ण वर्तमानकाल 

क्रिया के जिस रूप से कार्य के पूरे होने का पता चकता है, वहां पर पुरान वर्तमान काल होता है। इसके वाक्य के अंत में ई या फेर चुका है, चुके है चुकी है आदि शब्दों का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

उदाहरण–:मोहन आया है। 

           रिया ने पुस्तक पढ़ी है।

           श्याम खाना खा चुका है

(iv) संदिग्ध वर्तमानकाल

 क्रिया के जिस रूप से कार्य के पूरा होने में संदेह होता है या कार्य पूरा नहीं हुआ हो वहां पर संदिग्ध वर्तमान काल होता है। इससे वाक्य के अंत में रहा होगी, रही होगी, रहे होगे आदि शब्दों का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

उदाहरण–: माँ खाना बना रही होगी। 

                माली पौधों को पानी दे रहा होगा

               बच्चे अब गाना गा रहे होंगे।

(v) तत्कालिक वर्तमानकाल

 क्रिया के जिस रूप से यह पता चलता है कि कार्य वर्तमानकाल में हो रही है उसे तात्कालिक वर्तमानकाल कहते हैं।

उदाहरण–: गीता पढ़ रही है।

             रमेश जा रहा है।

(vi)सम्भाव्य वर्तमानकाल 

 इससे वर्तमानकाल में काम के पूरा होने की सम्भवना रहती है। उसे सम्भाव्य वर्तमानकाल कहते हैं। संभाव्य का अर्थ होता है संभावित या जिसके होने की संभावना हो।

(2)भूतकाल 

 क्रिया के जिस रूप से कार्य का भूतपूर्व समय अर्थात आज से पहले समय में होने का बोध हो उसे भूतकाल कहते हैं। इसमें कार्य बीते हुए समय में किया जाता है। भूतकाल के वाक्य के अंत में था, थे, थी आदि शब्द आते हैं।

उदाहरण–: दीपक खाना खा चुका था

              बच्चो ने अपना पाठ याद किया

               रीमा ने पुस्तक पढ़ ली थी।

भूतकाल के छह भेद होते है

(i)सामान्य भूतकाल

(ii)आसन भूतकाल 

(iii)पूर्ण भूतकाल

(iv)अपूर्ण भूतकाल 

(v)संदिग्ध भूतकाल 

(vi)हेतुहेतुमद् भूत

(i) सामान्य भूतकाल

दूसरे शब्दों में-क्रिया के जिस रूप से काम के सामान्य रूप से बीते समय में पूरा होने का बोध हो, उसे सामान्य भूतकाल कहते हैं। इसमें किसी विशेष समय का बोध नहीं होता है।

उदाहरण –: अमित आया।

               कृष्ण ने कंस को मारा

(ii) आसन्न भूतकाल

क्रिया के जिस रूप से यह पता चले कि क्रिया अभी कुछ समय पहले ही पूर्ण हुई है, उसे आसन्न भूतकाल कहते हैं।

उदाहरण–  रीना ने आम खाया हैं।

             गीता अभी सो कर उठी है।

[ⅲ] पूर्ण भूतकाल

 क्रिया के जिस रूप से कार्य के पूरा होने के समय का बोध होता है उसे पूर्ण भूतकाल कहते है। इसमें कार्य तत्काल समय में पूरा हुआ होता है। 

उदाहरण–  राम ने रावण को मारा था।

                तन्नू अमित के घर गई थी।

पूर्ण भूतकाल में क्रिया के साथ ‘था, थी, थे, चुका था, चुकी थी, चुके थे आदि लगता है।

(iv) अपूर्ण भूतकाल

 क्रिया के जिस रूप से यह पता चले की कार्य अभी पूरा नहीं हुआ है चल रहा था उसे अपूर्ण भूतकाल कहते हैं। इन वाक्यों में अंत में रहा था, रहे थे, रही थी आदि शब्द आते हैं।

उदाहरण–:  मीना नाच रही थी।

               अभय गा रहा था।

(v) संदिग्ध भूतकाल

क्रिया के जिस रूप से कार्य के होने में निश्चितता न हो और संदेह प्रकट करते हो उसे संदिग्ध भूतकाल कहते है। इसमें यह सन्देह बना रहता है कि भूतकाल में कार्य पूरा हुआ या नही। इस वाक्य के अंत में होगा, चुका होगा, होगी आदि शब्दों का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

उदाहरण– तुमने सेब खाया होगा।

             उस समय बारिश आई होगी।

             सभी ने गाना गया होगा।

(vi) हेतुहेतुमद् भूतकाल

हेतु का अर्थ है कारण। जिस वाक्य में एक क्रिया का भार दूसरी क्रिया पर पड़े अर्थात  एक क्रिया का होना या ना होना दूसरी क्रिया के होने या ना होने पर निर्भर हो वह हेतुहेतुमद् भूतकाल क्रिया कहलाती है। इससे यह पता चलता है की क्रिया भूतकाल में होने वाली थी लेकिन किसी कारण नहीं हो सकी।

उदाहरण–:

यदि तुमने परिश्रम किया होता, तो पास हो जाते।

यदि वर्षा होती, तो फसल अच्छी होती।

उपर्युक्त वाक्यों की क्रियाएँ एक-दूसरे पर निर्भर हैं। पहली क्रिया के न होने पर दूसरी क्रिया भी पूरी नहीं होती है। अतः ये हेतुहेतुमद् भूतकाल की क्रियाएँ हैं।

(3)भविष्यत काल

क्रिया के जिस रूप से कार्य का आने वाले समय में होने का बोध हो तो उसे भविष्य काल की क्रिया कहते है। इन वाक्यों के अंत में गा, गै, गी आदि आते है।

जैसे– दीपक विद्यालय जाएगा।

        हम सभी मेला देखने जायेंगे।

भविष्यकाल के तीन भेद होते है

(i)सामान्य भविष्यत काल

(ii)सम्भाव्य भविष्यत काल

(iii)हेतुहेतुमद्भविष्य भविष्यत काल

(i)सामान्य भविष्यत काल 

 क्रिया के जिस रूप से उसके भविष्य में सामान्य ढंग से होने का पता चलता है, उसे सामान्य भविष्य काल कहते हैं।

इससे यह प्रकट होता है कि क्रिया सामान्यतः भविष्य में होगी।

जैसे- बच्चे फुटबॉल खेलेंगे।

       वह दिल्ली जायेगा।

       मोहन पुस्तकें बेचेगा।

(ii)सम्भाव्य भविष्यत काल

क्रिया के जिस रूप से उसके भविष्य में होने की संभावना का पता चलता है, उसे सम्भाव्य भविष्यत काल कहते हैं।

जिससे भविष्य में किसी कार्य के होने की सम्भावना हो।

जैसे- शायद वह मुंबई जाए।

परीक्षा में शायद मैं सफल हो जाऊं।

(iii) हेतुहेतुमद्भविष्य भविष्यत काल

क्रिया के जिस रूप से एक कार्य का पूरा होना दूसरी आने वाले समय की क्रिया पर निर्भर हो उसे हेतुहेतुमद्भविष्य भविष्य काल कहते है।

जैसे- मोहन घर आए तो मै खाना खाऊंगा।

        वह मुझे लेने आयेगा तभी मैं जाऊंगी।

 

अधिकतर पूछे गए प्रश्न

1. काल से आप क्या समझते है?

उत्तर: काल का अर्थ समय होता है, इसलिए क्रिया के जिस रूप से किसी काम के होने या उसके करने के समय का पता चलता है, उसे काल कहते है।जिससे कार्य समय का पता चले उस समय को काल कहते हैं।

2. काल के कितने भेद होते हैं?

उत्तर: कौन सा कार्य किस काल में किया गया है अर्थात किस समय में कार्य किया गया है यह जानने के लिए काल को तीन भेदों में बांटा गया हैं।

वर्तमान काल

भूत काल

भविष्य काल

3.भविष्य काल किसे कहते है?

उत्तर: क्रिया के जिस रूप से कार्य का आने वाले समय में होने का बोध हो तो उसे भविष्य काल की क्रिया कहते है। इन वाक्यों के अंत में गा, गै, गी आदि आते हैं। जैसे- वह कल घर जाएगा।

4.संदिग्ध भूत काल किसे कहते है?

उत्तर: क्रिया के जिस रूप से कार्य के होने में निश्चितता न हो और संदेह प्रकट करते हो उसे संदिग्ध भूतकाल कहते है।इसमें यह सन्देह बना रहता है कि भूतकाल में कार्य पूरा हुआ या नही। इस वाक्य के अंत में होगा, चुका होगा, होगी आदि शब्दों का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

जैसे- तू गाया होगा।

5. तत्कालिक वर्तमान काल किसे कहते है?

उत्तर: क्रिया के जिस रूप से यह पता चलता है कि कार्य वर्तमानकाल में हो रही है उसे तात्कालिक वर्तमानकाल कहते हैं।

जैसे- मै पढ़ रहा हूँ। वह जा रहा है।

सर्वनाम	संज्ञा
प्रत्यय	अलंकार
वर्तनी	पद परिचय
वाक्य विचार	समास
लिंग	संधि
विराम चिन्ह	शब्द विचार
अव्यय	काल

Introduction

In the Friedel-Crafts reaction, an alkyl or acyl group swaps places with the hydrogen atom of an aromatic molecule to make a hydrocarbon or ketone. This is an example of an electrophilic substitution reaction. When an aromatic molecule is alkylated or acylated, an acid catalyst (Lewis acid) is present. This could be \(AlC{l_3}\), \(ZnC{l_3}\), or \(B{F_3}\). The attacking particle is an alkyl or acyl cation, which is made by the catalyst. In 1877 and 1878, J. Crafts and C. Friedel came up with this reaction. They used it to connect substituents to aromatic rings.

During the alkylation and acylation processes, the hydrogen atom that was originally attached to the aromatic ring is swapped for an electrophile. The most common catalyst is aluminium trichloride, which works as an acid (Lewis) by combining with chlorine to make a strong electrophile.

What is Friedel crafts reaction?

These reactions are organic coupling reactions that attach substituents to aromatic rings through an aromatic substitution that is electrophilic. During a typical Friedel–Crafts reaction, a new C–C bond is made. Friedel-Crafts processes can be either acylation or alkylation. A process called alkylation is used to add the benzene ring and a short carbon chain. When an acyl group is added in the process of acylation, aryl ketones are made.

What is its type

The two main categories of Friedel-Crafts processes are: 

• Friedel craft acylation
• Friedel crafts alkylation.

Friedel Craft Alkylation and Acylation

Friedel craft alkylation 

When there is an aromatic ring, Friedel Crafts alkylation is done by using a Lewis acid on an alkyl halide. While the C-H bond is being broken, the alkyl group joins the ring and forms a C-C bond. A Lewis acid catalyst like \(FeC{l_3}\) or \(AlC{l_3}\) is used in this reaction to speed up the removal of the halide and make a carbocation. Before the alkylation reaction can start, the resultant carbocation has to change its shape. You should never use alkenyl, alkynyl, or aryl halides; only an alkyl halogen (Cl, Br, or I) should be used, or the reaction won’t work. The carbocations of these species are hard to make and very unstable.

This is the main way that the industry makes high-octane fuels, surfactants, fragrances, antioxidants, etc., as well as other important goods like cumene and thymol.

Mechanism of Friedel craft alkylation 

STEP1: The lewis acid attavks the alkyl halide which results in the formation of a  carbocation. 

STEP2: The carbocation attacks the aromatic ring and an arenium ion is obtained.

STEP3: Deprotonation occurs at the ipso carbon and aromaticity the ring is restored and the alkylated aromatic molecule is obtained. The  \(AlC{l_3}\)  catalyst is renewed. 

Friedel craft acylation 

When a Lewis acid catalyst like \(AlC{l_3}\) is present, this aromatic electrophilic substitution reaction between arenes and acyl halogens or anhydrides and acyl halogens or anhydrides leads to the making of monoacylated compounds. The halogen in the acyl halide joins with the Lewis acid to form a complex. This makes a better electrophilic acylium cation (RCO+) that is stable through resonance. Ketones are the only thing that can come out of this process.

The Friedel Crafts acylation is an important business process. It is used to make fine chemicals, intermediates for making other chemicals, and chemical feedstock.

Mechanism of Friedel craft acylation 

STEP1: The acyla halide and the lewis acid catalyst complexate. \(AlC{l^{4-}}\), is removed and an acylium ion is formed (RCO+). 

STEP2: The acylium ion is an electrophile and it attacks the aromatic ring’ double bond  resulting in the formation of an arenium ion. 

STEP3: Deprotonation occurs at the ipso carbon and aromaticity the ring is restored and acylated aromatic molecule is obtained. The \(AlC{l_3}\),  catalyst is renewed. 

Summary 

“Friedel-Crafts alkylation” is the process of replacing an aromatic proton with an alkyl group. To do this, a carbocation is used to attack the aromatic ring in an electrophilic way. Alkyl halides are used as reactants in the Friedel-Crafts alkylation method, which makes alkylbenzenes. During Friedel Crafts acylation, when an acyl group is added, aryl ketones are made.

Friedel Crafts acylation is better than Friedel Crafts alkylation in a number of ways. One of these benefits is the ability to better control the reaction products. Another is that the acylium cation is stable because of resonance, which makes rearrangement impossible. The Clemmensen reduction process can be used to turn the produced ketones into alkyl groups.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Why can we not uses lewis base aromatic compounds in Friedel-Crafts reactions?

We can’t use Lewis base organic compounds because \(AlC{l_3}\), which is used in the Friedel-Crafts process and is a Lewis acid catalyst, reacts with Lewis base to make salt. Because the base gets a positive charge, it can be used to stop other reactions from happening.

2. Can Friedel craft reaction take place without catalyst?

No, Friedel craft reactions can not take place without catalysts. For the Friedel Craft reaction to occur without catalyst, the finest aromatic reagent  are those that can produce the electrophile without needing Lewis acids. Since benzene rings are not strong nucleophiles, they can not produce electrophiles directly. Thus it needs an external help. 

3. What is arenium ion?

An arenium ion is a cyclohexadienyl cation in organic chemistry. It is a reactive intermediate in electrophilic aromatic substitution. Two hydrogen atoms that are attached to a single carbon atom are in a plane that is perpendicular to the benzene ring. The arenium ion is no longer an aromatic species, but due to delocalization, it is still pretty stable:

Introduction

Distillation is an isolation technique used to separate two miscible or immiscible liquids. This is based on the principle of boiling points of the components of the liquid mixture.  It has been used since ancient times to make oils, alcohol, beverages, etc. The distillation process has now been industrialised and made faster and more efficient with more delicate instrumentation. 

What is fractional distillation?

Fractional distillation is another form of the distillation process that makes it simple to separate two or more liquids in combination with different boiling points but near one another. Vaporization is the method used for this separation. The process continues, with the liquid having a lower boiling point evaporating first and emerging from the mixture. With a pressure of 1 atm, the liquids typically have boiling points that are dissimilar by around 25 °C. Separation benefits greatly from fractional distillation. Thus, it is frequently used in a variety of sectors, including cryogenic air separation, chemical plants, oil refineries, and many others. Distillation typically operates at a constant state.

Fractional Distillation

Principle of fractional distillation 

The difference in the boiling points (B.P.) of the mixture’s liquids serves as the foundation for the fractional distillation principle. The impurities contained there also exhibit distinct boiling temperatures when the same mixture is heated, making it simple to separate them using a pipe. Now, with the aid of an example or instance, we may comprehend this. One illustration is the fractional distillation of water and ethanol (C2H5OH). Considering ethanol’s boiling point is 78.5 °C and water’s boiling temperature is around 100 °C. As a result, the fractional distillation method may be used to separate the combination of these two liquids, as there is a sizable difference in their boiling points.

Difference between simple and fractional distillation

Fractional Distillation Apparatus

The fractionating column of the fractional distillation equipment increases its efficiency by giving the liquid more opportunities to condense or freeze, giving it an edge over a straightforward distillation procedure. In the fractional distillation process, a fractionating column packed with glass beads offers a large surface area for the vapours to clash and lose energy, allowing them to be condensed and distilled swiftly.

Fractional Distillation in industry.

The division of crude oil into its constituent parts is one of the most significant and often utilized instances of fractional distillation in industries. Due to the fact that crude oil is a mixture of several materials or components, such as diesel, paraffin wax, naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, and lubricating oil. The fractional distillation method is employed in industries to separate the aforementioned components. Many steps are taken to do this. The machine’s chamber is filled with crude oil, which is heated with high-pressure steam. Once the mixture begins to boil, its vapour is produced. The vapour phase now contains a variety of substances or components and the vapour increases. 

Summary

In the fractional distillation process, 2 or even more liquids with various boiling points that are close to one another in a combination may easily be separated. Vaporization is the method used for this separation. In this case, the liquid with a lower boiling point vaporizes first and separates from the mixture. The process then proceeds in a similar manner. With a pressure of 1 atm, the liquids typically have boiling points around 25 °C apart from one another. Nevertheless, simple distillation is utilized when the difference in temperature between the liquids is more than 25 °C. Separation benefits greatly from fractional distillation. Hence, it is frequently used in enterprises and refineries for oil and chemical facilities.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Fractional distillation: Is it more precise?

Fractional distillation is more effective when the two liquids in combination have similar boiling points, often with a range not  exceeding 40 degrees Celsius. With one apparatus, fractional distillation completes several straightforward distillations.

2. What is low-temperature fractional distillation?

At low temperatures, Low-temperature fractional distillation is used to separate a mixture into its constituent elements. This method is often used for the separation of component elements that boil at less than 25°C apart under a hoover.

3. Why does the temperature rise in fractional distillation in the upward direction?

Vapours move through the fractionating column during distillation, releasing their heat energy to the walls of the column and condensing. This causes the column to become warmer. The bottom end of the column is more frequently traversed by the vapours than the top end.