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Introduction

Animals have sophisticated nervous systems. It is a vital system that controls all of our body’s voluntary and involuntary movements.  The nervous system controls all complicated functions, including reading, remembering, feeling emotions, and logical thought.  The brain, spinal cord, and nerve network are all parts of the nervous system.

Together, these organs carry out the complex functions of the nervous system.

Nervous System Classification

The nervous system is classified into 3 types i.e the Central nervous system(CNS), the Autonomic nervous system(ANS), and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

Central nervous system(CNS)

• The spinal cord and brain together make up the CNS. 
• The brain is covered by a fluid known as a Cerebrospinal fluid(CSF).
• Three membranes—the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater—cover the brain.
• Humans are made up of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
• The forebrain is made up of the diencephalon and cerebrum and is further divided into the dorsal thalamus and ventral hypothalamus.
• The cerebrum is in charge of our motivation, reasoning, imagination, memory, thinking, and consciousness.
• The midbrain is made up of four circular structures called the cerebral aqueduct and corpora quadrigemina.
• The hindbrain is made up of the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and pons.
• All voluntary motions and body equilibrium are controlled by the cerebellum, whereas the pons regulates breathing and the sleep cycle.
• The medulla oblongata regulates breathing, circulation, gastric secretions, vomiting, and salivation.
• The spinal cord is a cylindrical structure that resides in the neural canal of the vertebral column.
• The spinal cord is the location where all the nerves join and the information is sent to the brain.

Autonomic nervous system(ANS)

• ANS is known as the Autonomic Nervous system.
• It regulates the body’s internal organs’ involuntary functions.
• The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are the two types of ANS.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• The PNS is made up of nerves that emerge from the spinal cord and brain.
• The term “cranial nerves” refers to nerves that are emerging from the brain.
• Spinal nerves are nerves that arise from the spinal cord.

Parts of the nervous system

Neurons are the structural and functional components of the nervous system. Neurons are typically referred to as nerve cells. It is the longest cell in the human body and sends electrical impulses as messages. 

Following are the parts of a neuron.

• Cyton: The cell body is the main component of the neuron. The cyton contains cell organelles, a nucleus, and cytoplasm.
• Dendrites: These cytoplasmic extensions that protrude from the cell body are numerous and highly branched. They carry electric impulses both inside and outside of the cell body.
• Axon: It emerges from the cyton as a solitary, unbranched cylindrical projection. A myelin sheath protects the axon. It transports impulses away from the cyton.

Functions of the nervous system

• The network of neurons is in charge of message reception and transmission, which in turn controls and coordinates the various bodily parts.
• The cerebrum is in charge of our intelligence, thinking, consciousness, memory, imagination, reasoning, and willpower.
• The nervous system also controls voluntary movement and body balance. The cerebellum is in charge of this activity.
• The spinal cord is involved in the reflex action and helps in quick response during dangerous situations.
• The Nervous system of the body is responsible for controlling all automatic reactions to peripheral nerve stimulation such as breathing, stomach secretion, vomiting, etc.

Types of nerves

Classification of nerves is based on function, structure, and myelin sheath.

Classification based on function

• Afferent or  Sensory  Neurons: These nerves perform the function of carrying impulses to the Central Nervous system from the various sense organs such as eyes, nose, skin, etc.

• Efferent or Motor Neurons: These nerves perform the function of carrying impulses from the Central Nervous system to various effector organs such as muscles, organs, etc.
• Interneurons or Association Neurons: This neuron help in transferring impulses between the Sensory and Motor neurons.

Classification based on the structure

• Unipolar Neurons: In these neurons, the cell body gives rise to only a single nerve process that performs the function of both axon and dendron. These are seen in the spinal and cranial nerve ganglia.
• Bipolar Neurons: Here, two nerve processes are formed from the cell body. One of these becomes the axon and the other becomes the dendron. These are found in various sensory organs such as the nose, tongue, eye, etc.
• Multipolar Neurons: Multiple dendrons are generated from a single-cell body. These are the most common types of neurons found in the nervous system.

Classification based on the myelin sheath 

• Myelinated nerve fiber: A myelin sheath protects the axon 
• Non-myelinated nerve fiber: The nerve fiber here is not protected by the myelin sheath.

Summary

The human nervous system is the body’s most complicated network system. It is made up of the autonomic, peripheral, and central nervous systems. It enables us to carry out routine tasks, difficult activities, and bodily functions.  With the aid of a sophisticated network of nerves, the nervous system functions as a communication network that sends and receives signals from the brain and spinal cord to every area of the body. The nervous system is made up of neurons and based on their structures, functions, and whether or not myelin sheaths are present, neurons are further classified.

Frequently asked question

1. What is the Cerebrospinal fluid?
Ans: The brain’s ventricles (hollow spaces) are lined with tissue. This tissue produces cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid circulates around and inside the brain and spinal cord to nourish and protect them.

2. What signs of a weak neurological system?
Ans: Symptoms of disorders of the nervous system are-

• headaches that develop suddenly or persistently.
• tingling feeling or loss of sensation.
• loss of muscle strength or weakness.
• eyesight loss or double vision
• memory deterioration
• reduced mental capacity

3. Which components have a negative impact on the nervous system?
Ans: Following have a negative impact on the nervous system 

• Trauma (injuries), particularly spinal cord and head trauma.
• Issues that exist from birth (congenital).
• Mental health issues such as depression, psychosis, or anxiety disorders.
• Exposure to poisons like lead, arsenic, or carbon monoxide.

Introduction

The smallest structural and functional units in all living things are cells. Together, several cells make up tissues. Plants and animals both have eukaryotic cells and hence all cells contain many membrane cell organelles such as the nucleus, nuclear membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, etc. Organs are made up of tissues that perform the same functions. To carry out specific tasks, tissues are organized in a specific way. Animals and plants are made up of several tissues. Meristematic tissue and permanent tissue are the two types of tissues found in plants. Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve tissue are the four different types of tissues found in animals. Animal tissues solely include living cells, but plant tissues contain both living and dead cells.

Plant tissues

Organs are made up of tissues that are united to carry out certain functions. These organs and tissues work together and help in growth, development, and reproduction. Plant organs include leaves, roots, flowers, fruits, and stems, which are made of many types of tissues.

The majority of plant tissues are composed of dead cells, and they give the plants their structural stability and defense against extreme environmental changes. Plant tissues can be divided into two kinds, such as permanent and meristematic tissue.

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Types of plant tissues

• Meristematic tissue: Meristematic tissues support the plant’s primary growth. These tissues’ cells regularly divide, and they can be found at the root and stem tips. Spherical, tightly packed cells with no interstitial space are a common feature of meristematic tissues. These cells contain a thick cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus. Depending on where they are, meristems can be divided into
  • Apical meristems-At the growing tip of the stem and roots apical meristems are present. They help increases the length of the plant.
  • Lateral meristems- Lateral meristems are located at the lateral portion of the root or stem. These cells help in increasing the girth of the plant. They include cork cambium and vascular cambium which assist in secondary growth.
  • Intercalary meristems-These tissues are usually located in the internodes, nodes, or base of the leaves. They help in the growth of the leaves in the direction of light also they help in increasing the height of the plant.

• Permanent tissue: Permanent tissues are those that have fully developed and lost the capacity to reproduce. The permanent tissues are formed by the division and differentiation of the meristematic tissues.
  • Simple permanent tissues- Cells are identical and simple in simple tissues. These tissues are made up of cells that share a common origin, a similar structure, and related functions. Further, these tissues are divided into the parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.
  • 

• Complex permanent tissues: These tissues are made up of various cells which are complex in nature. Phloem and xylem are examples of complex permanent tissues. These tissues aid in the transportation of  food, water, and mineral throughout the plant body.
• 

• Animal tissues are constructed from a collection of the animals’ cells. Animals have a range of tissues that each carry out a specific function for the organism. Organs are created when the tissues come together. Organisms are composed of organs. So, with the aid of tissues, a multicellular creature is created as a whole structure. The animal body contains four main types of tissues: epithelium tissues, muscular tissues, nerve tissues, and connective tissues. These tissues have various origins and functions.

Types of animal tissues

• Epithelial tissues
  • These were the first to arise during evolution and can be single or multilayered.
  • Covers both the body’s interior and exterior organs. They are very tightly packed and lack an intercellular matrix.
  • The cells may regenerate. 
  • Major functions of these tissues are to protect layers of organs, absorb, and secrete various fluids.
  • Based on the structure of the cells, there are four different types of epithelial tissues: squamous, cuboidal, stratified, and columnar epithelium.

Muscle tissues: 

• Muscle tissues are the tissues that surround the muscles.
• They aid in the body movement of the animal by contraction and relaxation.
• Skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle are the three different types of muscles found in an animal body.

• Connective tissues:
  • These tissues assist in connecting organs, other tissues, and various other body parts.
  • They also assist in the transportation of various materials throughout the body.
  • There are six different types of connective tissues: cartilage, adipose, lymph, bone, and blood.

• Nervous tissues:
  • The electrochemical impulse transmission between various neurons is carried out by these cells.
  • They help in the control and coordination of the entire body.
  • Nervous tissues are made up of nerve cells like neurons and neuroglia.

Differences between plant and animal tissue

Plant tissues	Animal tissues
They are defined as groups of cells performing the same task in plants.	They are defined as groups of cells performing the same task in animals.
The tissues here are comparatively simple.	The tissues here are comparatively more complex.
They have two types of tissues- Permanent and Meristematic tissues.	They are of 4 types-  Epithelial, Connective, Nervous, and Muscle tissues.
Differentiation is seen in both permanent and meristematic tissues.	No such differentiation is seen in animal cells.
These include living as well as dead tissues.	It mostly includes living tissues.
Maintenance of plant tissue requires less energy.	Maintenance of animal tissue requires more energy.
The cells of these tissues have cell walls.	The cells of these tissues are devoid of cell walls.
They provide mechanical support to the plants.	They help in movement and locomotion.

Summary 

The cells that makeup tissues collaborate to carry out various functions of the body. Meristematic and permanent tissues are the two categories of plant tissues. Epithelial, connective, neuronal, and muscle tissues are the four different types of tissues found in animals. Plant tissues support nutrient delivery and plant growth, whereas animal tissues support body movement or locomotion. This is the major distinction between plant and animal tissues. The healthy development and functioning of both plants and animals depend on both plant and animal tissues respectively.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the similarities between plant and animal tissue?
Ans: Following are the similarity between plant and animal tissues-

• Cells of both tissues are eukaryotic i.e. they contain all cell organelles such as the Nucleus, nucleolus, RNA, DNA, Endoplasmic reticulum, etc.
• These tissues lead to the formation of organs and organ systems.
• Cells of these tissues release ATP which is used as an energy source to carry out all cellular activities.

2. Give the components of the xylem and phloem.
Ans: Phloem tissue aids in transporting materials throughout the plant body and is made up of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma, and phloem fibers. The xylem transports water and nutrients throughout the plant body and is made up of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma, and xylem fiber.

3. Describe sclerenchyma.
Ans: Sclenechyma is simple permanent tissue found in plants. It provides mechanical support to plants and is made up of dead cells. These dead cells are highly lignified. Sclerenchyma is mostly found in the mature parts of the plants such as barks, thick stems, etc. It is made up of long and narrow cells. Cells are usually without protoplasts.

Introduction

The Mughal Dynasty, which ruled India for over two centuries, was one of the most significant. The Mughals created a reliable system for tax collecting. The earnings from the sale of land were the main source of income. Akbar categorized territories and established prices for each category. To oversee the empire’s financial system, the office of the diwan was established. Several institutions, such as the Jagirdari system, the Mansabdari system, and the Zamindari system, were developed during the Mughal dynasty.

Zabt

• Akbar established a strategy of evaluating every agricultural plot through ongoing surveys to ascertain the typical production from every type of land.
• These evaluations concentrated on factors including flood and drought conditions, during these natural disasters, peasants received relief.
• The Zabt or Zabti system was a method of revenue collection based on such assessments. The dahsala system was further derived from the Zabti system.
• Todar Mal, Akbar’s revenue minister, supervised this land revenue system.
• Between the years 1570 and 1580, Todar Mal carried out a survey of the land, crop yields, and product prices.
• On the basis of his assessment, he set a tax amount on each crop.
• Cash was the favored form of payment in the zabti system.

Who were Zamindars?

• During the Mughal era, a class of people known as zamindars possessed special privileges in the countryside.
• Although they were dependent on agriculture, they did not work in it.
• Zamindars were members of the rural nobility who might be local chieftains or heads of villages. They were large landowners, and their property was known as milkiyats.
• These lands were entirely under their authority and they had hereditary rights for these places.
• The majority of zamindars belonged to the higher caste, including Rajputs and Brahmans.

Role of Zamindars

• The zamindars enjoyed their property rights in the countryside and were free to continue their ancient customs.
• The most important role of the Zamindars was to collect taxes on behalf of the state and they were compensated for their services provided.
• They often fought with the peasants for the collection of taxes and they resolve this using their military strength.

Consolidation of zamindari

• Zamindari’s stabilization took a long time. To purchase zamindari, people from lower castes had to go through a number of procedures.
• The Zamindari was auctioned by the state during the Mughal era, and it was a long and tedious procedure.
• Jats and Rajputs increased their dominance in northern India by colonizing fresh agricultural land and purchasing it from the government.
• These Zamindars established themselves, transported peasants to these new arable lands, and assisted them in farming by providing loans and other resources.
• They kept making more money through this approach, which eventually increased their authority.
• Numerous settlements were created as a result of the emergence of new Zamindars and cultivable land. The milkiyat’s goods were enjoyed by the zamindars, who also had the legal right to sell them.
• During this time, haats—marketplaces where zamindars and people flocked to buy and sell produce—became more prevalent in villages.
• Although the Zamindars’ activities are commonly regarded as exploitative, there is little evidence of this in the historical archives.

Summary

The complicated bureaucracy was created as a result of the merger of large empires. Numerous institutions, like Mansabdar, Jagridar, and Zamindars, were part of the Mughal Empire. Land revenue and taxes are the kingdom’s primary sources of income. During Akbar’s reign, the revenue of a specific land was based on the assessment and evaluation of that land, and depending on this assessment different tax amounts were taken from particular lands. This income assessment method was known as Zabt. The milkiyat, is the land that belonged to the rural elites known as the zamindars. The state employs zamindars to collect taxes on behalf of the state, while they enjoy the produces that are grown on their respective lands.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the batai system?
Ans: The batai system was a different method of collecting money. It was the earliest method of getting money from the peasants. In batai, the peasants were required to contribute the kingdom a specific portion of their harvest. The Zabti and batai systems were up for selection by the peasantry.

2. Explain the Dahsala system for tax collection.
Ans: Dahsala was a development of Zabt policy. Todar Mal, Akbar’s minister of revenue, came up with it. This strategy determined the total yield of any land over a period of ten years and then applied the average as a tax.

3. What distinguishes Zabt and Batai from one another?
Ans: Zabt, or land revenue, was paid in cash, but Batai, or revenue, was paid in agricultural output.

Introduction

The Mansabdari and Jagirdari systems did not start off suddenly. It is a practice that developed from the bureaucracy in medieval India. Emperors of the Delhi sultanate had captured the vast regions, and to govern those territories, they established a bureaucracy. In the past, emperors appointed their military leaders as governors, and occasionally they selected their well-trained slaves to lead those regions. High-ranking court officials were assigned designated areas to administer and were permitted to receive tax revenue as compensation. Akbar proposed the concept of Mansab and Jagir. The Mughal empire’s growth and fall were both significantly influenced by the mansabdari system. In the Mughal era, the bureaucracy systems mansabdari and jagirdari both existed.

The Mansabdars

• Mansab in the Mughal court denoted a position or rank. The Mansabdari system was developed under the Mughal court.
• People with a rank in the Mughal emperor’s service are known as mansabdars.
• In this system, the top officials were assigned specific grades and positions in the Mughal court.
• The Mughal court made nobles into mansabdars which included Muslims from India, Rajputs, Afghans, etc. also the Military and civilian authorities equally served as mansabdars.
• To determine a fixed position, military responsibilities, and salary, mansab ranks were assigned.
• The mansabdars were symbolized by a number called Zat, which set their wages and rank in the emperor’s court. The higher the Zat, the higher the mansabdar’s standing in the court.
• 29 mansabdars with a rank of 5000 or higher existed during the reign of Akbar.
• The number of soldiers, cavalrymen, and horses that a mansabdar was required to present to the king were also based on the numerical value of zat.
• Zat and Sawars demoted the Mansabdars. The Sawars represent the required number of cavalrymen and horses.
• The Mansabdars were required to register their cavalrymen and brand their horses.
• The position of mansabdar was transferred; and not hereditary.
• Both money and land were given to mansabdars as payment.
• They were regarded as elites.

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The Jagirdars

• Jagirdars were mansabdars who received payment in the form of a plot of land or Jagir.
• The iqtadari system of the former Delhi Sultanate inspired this custom of compensating the nobility with the land.
• It must be kept in mind that Jagirdars were distinct from Iqtadars in that they were only given the power to collect taxes from that jagir as their compensation rather than being given control of that territory.
• Jagirdar had a responsibility to pay his troops, and cavalrymen, and maintain the standard of the horses.
• Following a thorough evaluation, the king granted them a jagir so that the revenue received would equal their salary.
• The Jagirdars used to live opulent lives.
• The position of a Jagirdar was not hereditary and could be transferred.
• Jairdars and mansabdars didn’t live in the jagirs that were given.
• They had servants who were in charge of collecting money for the jagirdars.
• The imperial authorities monitored jagirdars to prevent them from using the peasants as a means of generating extra revenue and force on them to extra taxes.

Drawbacks of Jagirdars and Mansabdars system

There were some drawbacks in these systems such as-

• The mansabdari and jagirdari institutions functioned effectively under Akbar’s rule, and he appointed officials to maintain their control.
• Although there were more mansabdaars later in Aurangzeb’s reign, there were fewer jagirs available, therefore mansabdars had to wait a long time to obtain one.
• After receiving the jagir, they sought to maximise their income by taking advantage of the peasants and occasionally used Faujdar, a military commander, to collect taxes.
• The mansabdars, or nobles, amassed immense wealth in the seventeenth century, which expanded their influence.
• As the Mughal dynasty began to fall apart, they gradually established their own monarchy, claimed the land as their inherited jagir, and began to rule over those places. This was seen in the Awadh and Hyderabad provinces.
• They continued to regard the Mughal emperor as their superior but maintained their autonomy.

Summary

The Mughal government was highly developed and sophisticated. With several innovations, it had adapted the administrative procedures and framework of the preceding dynasties and developed its own king of bureaucracy. Akbar was the innovator of the Mughal administration. The bureaucracy ran smoothly and effectively during his reign. In order to create Mansabdars and Jagirdars, Akbar modified the earlier system of iqtadars. The Mansab was based on the rank and position a manasabdari held in the mughal court and the Jagirdars were mansabdars who received their daily wages in the form of jagir. Both of them received taxes from the allotted province but they never ruled them. These positions were transferable and not inherited, it contributed to both the growth and fall of the Mughal empire.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Who were the Zamindars?

Ans: In the Mughal era there was a Zamidari system, and they were governed by the Zamindars.

• Zamindars were members of the rural elite who exercised administrative control over a region, whilst Jagirdars had no such authority.
• The Rajputs or another reigning family were the ancestors of the zamindars.
• The Jairdars were not always members of the previous aristocracy.
• Rural zamindars were small-scale landowners.
• Additionally, zamindars had forts and an army.
• Zamindars, as opposed to Jagirdars, had inherited control over tax collection.\
• While Jagirdars were stationed in the Mughal court, Zamindars often lived in their region.

2. What does Tajwiz mean?

Ans: Tajwiz was a formal request made by a Noble to the emperor for the names of candidates to be recommended for the position of mansabdar.

3. How many classes existed within the Mansabdars?

Ans: The three classes of masabdars were as follows:

• The first class was required to keep an equal number of sawars and jat.
• The second class was required to keep jat and a half or more than half of its sawars.
• The third class kept jat and  just over half or less of its sawars.

An Introduction to a Separation Technique: Centrifugation

When we look around, there are many objects of various sizes, shapes, and textures. The element that scientists refer to as matter makes up everything in the cosmos. Everything is matter, including the air we breathe, the food we consume, rocks, clouds, stars, plants, animals, and even a single drop of water or sand. These compounds each have a unique nature and set of characteristics. They might be impure, or they might be completely pure. Looking around, we can also see that everything described above has mass and takes up space.

What are Techniques Available to Separate the Mixture

By using everyday physical techniques like hand-picking, sieving, and filtering, heterogeneous mixtures can be broken down into their components. The components of a combination sometimes need to be separated using specialized methods. Several of these methods include:

• Centrifugation
• Evaporation
• Sublimation
• Chromatography
• Fraction Distillation and Distillation

What is the Principle of Centrifugation

Particles with densities greater than the solvent’s density sink, while lighter particles float to the surface. They move faster when there is a greater density differential. Gravity can be replaced by a centrifuge’s much stronger centrifugal force, which can be used to separate different particles in a solution by exploiting even minor changes in density. The centrifuge operates on the sedimentation principle, which states that denser materials and particles flow outward in the radial direction as a result of centripetal acceleration. As they move to the centre, less dense objects are displaced.

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Process of Centrifugation for separating cream from milk

A separator is a centrifugal machine that separates skim milk from the cream. Milk is a liquid that contains tiny oil droplets suspended in it. The milk is centrifuged in a large, closed machine. When the machine is turned on, the milk is spun at an extremely high speed in a container. As a result, the milk is separated into cream and skim milk. Because the cream is lighter, it floats on top of the skimmed milk. It can then be removed. To separate milk and cream, centrifugation is used.

Summary

Centrifugation, which involves rapidly rotating solutions of molecules around an axis in a centrifuge rotor, can be used to separate different-density molecules. One of the most useful and widely used techniques in molecular biology laboratories.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the applications of centrifugation?
Ans. Some applications of centrifugation are-

• Separation of two miscible substances
• Subcellular organelle fractionation
• Separation of chalk powder and water
• Skimmed milk is made by removing the fat from milk.
• Wine clarification and stabilization

2. What are the methods by which heterogeneous mixtures can be separated?
Ans. Heterogeneous mixtures can be broken down into their constituents using common physical techniques such as handpicking, sieving, and filtering. Sometimes the components of a combination must be separated using specialized methods. Among these techniques are:

• Centrifugation
• Evaporation
• Sublimation
• Chromatography
• Fractional and full distillation

3. What do you mean by Mixture?
Ans. More than one type of pure form of matter, also known as substance, makes up a mixture. No physical process can split a substance into different types of matter.

An Introduction to Chromatography

The Greek words chroma, which means “colour,” and graphein, which means “to write,” are the roots of the word “chromatography.” In this procedure, the mixture to be separated is applied to a stationary phase (solid or liquid), and a pure solvent—such as water or any gas—is then allowed to slowly travel across the stationary phase, transporting the components separately based on their solubility in the pure solvent.

Principle of Chromatography

The chromatography principle is that “a mixture is applied to the surface or into a solid, and the fluid stationary phase (stable phase) separates from each other while moving with the help of the mobile phase”.

How to Separate Components from Black Ink

1. A thin strip of filter paper is cut out and a line is drawn 3 cm above the lower end of the filter paper. This is referred to as the reference line.
2. In the centre of the drawn line, a small dot of black ink is placed.
3. When the dot of black ink is dry, it is lowered into the water-filled chromatography jar.
4. The filter paper should be immersed so that the black ink dot is above the water level in the jar.
5. The setup should be left alone for a while.
6. The component of black ink that is more soluble in the water rises faster and higher up on the filter paper as the water begins to rise from the lower end of the filter paper. The level to which water rises is referred to as the waterfront.
7. Some coloured spots are observed corresponding to the separated components of the black ink, depending on the number of components present in the black ink.

Summary

The sample mixture is dissolved as the solvent rises through the paper, and it then travels up the paper. Because of differences in solubility and attraction to paper, smaller particles travel further than larger particles.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the advantages of Chromatography?

Ans. The advantages of chromatography:

1. A very small quantity of the substance can be separated.
2. Components with very similar physical and chemical properties can be separated.
3. It defines the different constituents of a mixture.
4. It also helps in the quantitative estimation of components of a mixture.

2. What do you mean by Heterogeneous solution?

Ans. A heterogeneous mixture can be defined as a solution with a non-uniform composition, such as dye, milk, and sand water solution.  

3. What are the different types of dyes?

Ans. The natural dyes are henna, walnut shells, turmeric, and catechu. Some synthetic dyes are methyl orange, methyl red, congo red, malachite green, rosaniline, pararosaniline, crystal violet, phenolphthalein, indigo, fluorescein, and anthraquinone dye.

Element Symbols in Chemistry: An Overview

Element names were originally derived from popular locations where they were discovered. The same as the copper taken from Cyprus. Furthermore, specific colours inspired some names. Gold, for example, was named after the English word for yellow.

Element symbols and names are currently approved by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). It is worth noting that many symbols are usually the first one or two letters of their English name. In addition, the first letter of a symbol is always capitalised or uppercase.

Furthermore, the second letter can be lowercase. Examples include hydrogen H, aluminium Al, and cobalt Co. Furthermore, some elements’ symbols are created by combining the first letter of their names with a letter that appears later in their names. Two examples are chlorine and zinc.

There are symbols based on Latin, Greek, or German names for elements. For example, the symbol for iron, Fe, is related to the Latin name Ferrum. This also applies to sodium (Na) natrium and potassium (K) kalium. As a result, each element has a distinct name as well as a chemical symbol.

Symbols of elements derived from the first letter
Nitrogen	N
Sulphur	S
Fluorine	F
Phosphorous	P
Iodine	I
Symbols of elements derived from the first two letters
Barium	Ba
Lithium	Li
Beryllium	Be
Neon	Ne
Silicon	Si
Calcium	Ca
Argon	Ar
Nickel	Ni
Symbols of elements derived from the first and third letters
Arsenic	As
Magnesium	Mg
Chlorine	Cl
Chromium	Cr
Manganese	Mn
Zinc	Zn

The table below provides a few symbols of the elements that are derived from their Latin names:

Element	Latin name	Symbol
Gold	Aurum	Au
Copper	Cuprum	Cu
Mercury	Hydrargyrum	Hg
Tin	Stannum	Sn
Lead	Plumbum	Pb
Antinomy	Stibium	Sb

Summary

The atomic symbols can be used to calculate the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Because using the elements’ actual names can be time-consuming, a symbol is useful. Symbols are frequently used to represent chemical reactions. The atomic symbols aid in the identification of the constituent elements of a compound, as well as the element’s grouping and time period.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the meaning of atomic mass?

Ans. The number of particles in an atom of an element is measured by its atomic mass. If the relative abundances of the various isotopes are taken into account, it is an average number.

2. How can molecules be identified from atoms?

Ans. Molecules are made up of two or more atoms, while the atoms themselves are the smallest component of an element.

3. What exactly is a covalent bond?

Ans. The interchange of two electrons across atoms produces a covalent bond, which is a chemical interaction.

Introduction

“An acid and a base react in chemistry to produce salt as a by-product. The negative ion (anion) of an acid and the positive ion (cation) of a base combine to form a salt. When an acid and a base come into contact, a neutralisation reaction takes place.” Table salt, composed of sodium chloride, is also referred to as salt. Most salts completely dissolve into negatively and positively charged ions when in solution or the molten state, making them excellent electrolytes.

What are the characteristics of salt?

• Salts are created when sodium and chloride combine.
• Ion bonds are electrostatic forces that bind ions together. They are drawn to one another by the opposite charges on the two ions.
• Saltwater is a good conductor of electricity, and the ionic compounds are neutral with no charge when they contain an equal number of opposite charges.
• Salts have an ionic character because they contain ions.
• Salt is a white, odourless, and salty tasting solid that is hard, crystalline, and brittle.

Explain the different types of salts 

• Normal Salts-Electrical neutrality is present in typical salts. When acids and bases balance each other out, these salts are produced.  Metallic ions completely replace hydrogen ions. Some examples, are NaCl, \(KN{O_3}\), \(CuS{O_4}\), etc.
• Basic Salt- A basic salt is the type of substance produced when a weak acid and a strong base react. This reaction creates a salt that is more basic. The pH of this salt is higher than 7. Sodium acetate (\(C{H_3}COONa\)), is a basic salt.
• Acidic Salt-Strong acids are neutralised by weak bases to form acidic salts. Such salt can dissolve in water and produce an acidic solution. Ammonium chloride (\(N{H_4}CI\)) is an acidic salt that is created when HCl, a strong acid, and \(N{H_4}OH\) (a weak base) react.
• Double Salt- A salt that contains two or more different cations or anions is referred to as a double salt. Examples of double salts include alums and Tutton’s salts.
• Mixed Salt- A salt that has a fixed ratio of two salts is called mixed salt. There is a common cation or anion in this mixed salt. Bleaching powder and sodium potassium carbonate are a couple of examples of mixed salts.
• Complex Salt- A complex salt is a substance made up of ligands surrounding a central metal atom in coordination bonds. Another name for this is a coordination compound. Because of the complex structure and the bonds between the cations and anions, this substance is known as a complex salt.

Explain the process of Neutralisation Reaction

When an acidic solution is treated with an alkaline solution or aqueous solution of a metal oxide, a salt is formed, and the solution becomes neutral. A neutralisation reaction occurs when \({H^ + }\) ions from an acid combine with \(O{H^ – }\) ions from the base of a metal oxide.

The chemical reactions shown below demonstrate the formation of salt.

\[HCl{\rm{ }} + {\rm{ }}NaOH{\rm{ }} \to {\rm{ }}NaCl{\rm{ }} + {\rm{ }}{H_2}O\]

\[{H_2}S{O_4} + {\rm{ }}Ca{\left( {OH} \right)_2} \to {\rm{ }}CaS{O_4} + {\rm{ }}2{H_2}O\]

Summary

Sodium chloride, also known as table salt, is a substance that we are all familiar with. We frequently season and preserve food with it. Other salt varieties and their applications, such as in the production of polyester fabrics, fertilisers, and dyes, are less well-known. Salts are frequently the result of an acid-base neutralisation reaction.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. How to tell whether something is neutral, acidic, or basic.

Ans. If the pH of a solution is lower than 7, it is said to be acidic. If the pH is 7, the solution is neutral; if it is higher than 7, the solution is basic.

2. Write five reasons why salt is important for the body.

Ans. Salt helps you stay hydrated, promotes good vascular health, balances electrolytes and prevents muscle cramping, supports a healthy nervous system, and improves sleep.

3. Is salt a chemical element?

Ans. Table salt is made up of the element sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl). Both elements are found bound together in nature as the compound sodium chloride, rather than occurring separately and freely.

An Introduction to Matter

In addition to taking on various forms, the matter is composed of small particles. Because they are so small, it is impossible to see these particles with the human eye. We have mentioned below some of the various properties of matter. There are different states of matter can also be found. The three common states are solids, liquids, and gases. Atoms and other particles with mass and volume are included in the matter.

What do you understand by the Characteristics of Particles of Matter?

We are aware that every substance in our environment is composed of small matter particles. This means that these particles have some attributes and can affect the status of properties. These characteristics of the substance can be either physical or chemical.

For more help, you can Refer to our video in Science Concept. Check out the video Lesson for a better understanding.

What are the Characteristics of Particles of Matter

The particles of matter are very, very small.

1. The particles of matter have space between them.
2. The particles of matter are constantly moving.
3. The particles of matter attract each other.

Let’s try to explain each characteristic of particles of matter with the help of an experiment.

The particles of matter are very, very small

You can demonstrate the extremely small size of matter particles by carrying out the following experiment with water and potassium permanganate.

1. Put two or three crystals of potassium permanganate in a beaker with 100 ml of water, and mix. The potassium permanganate solution in water will be a dark purple tint.
2. Approximately 10 ml of this solution should be taken out and placed in the second beaker with 90 ml of pure water. The second beaker’s potassium permanganate solution’s colour lightens slightly as a result of this dilution.
3. Take 10 ml of this mixture and add it to the third beaker’s 90 ml of clear water. The solution’s colour will continue to lighten.
4. Continue dilution of the solution in this manner 5–8 times.
5. We obtain a potassium permanganate solution in water in this manner, but the water is still coloured.
6. This experiment demonstrates how a small amount of potassium permanganate crystals may colour a significant amount of water.
7. Therefore, conclude that each potassium permanganate crystal must contain millions of minuscule particles that continually divide into smaller and smaller particles.

The particles of matter have space between them

The experiment below, which uses water and sugar, can be used to demonstrate the gaps between the particles of matter.

1. Have a 100 ml beaker ready.
2. Mark the water level after adding half of the water to the beaker.
3. Utilizing a glass rod, dissolve 50g of sugar.
4. We’ll discover that the sugar solution’s level in the beaker is exactly where the water level was when the beaker was first filled.
5. The crystals of sugar break down into incredibly small particles when they are dissolved in water. Since these sugar particles occupy the spaces between the different water particles, adding sugar to water does not change its volume.
6. When sugar is dissolved in water, there is no change in volume, which indicates that there are voids between the water molecules.

The particles of matter are constantly moving

The investigations on diffusion and Brownian motion gave the particles their characteristic of continual motion. 

1. Water and red ink slowly combine, causing the water to eventually turn crimson. 
2. The movement of matter particles is demonstrated by this action.

The particles of matter attract each other

The forces of attraction that hold matter particles together are known as gravitational forces. Cohesion is the term denoting the force of attraction between particles of the same substance.

1. When a piece of chalk, a cube of ice, and an iron nail are all hit with a hammer, the chalk is very easily broken into smaller pieces while the ice cube requires more energy to break, and the iron nail remains intact even when hit with a lot of force.
2. This demonstrates that the force of attraction between the chalk particles is very weak, the force between the ice particles is a little stronger, and the force between the iron nail particles is quite strong.

Summary

There are three different types of physical nature in the world around us. Solid, liquid, and gas are these we breathe in air, which is a gas, and we drink water, which is a liquid. Because different types of matter contain varied amounts of inter-particle space, we have mentioned three possible states of matter. In this article, we studied the characteristics of solids, liquids, and gases. In a nutshell, this is how matter behaves physically in the universe.

Frequently Asked Questions

Question 1. What are the several forms that matter can take?

Solids, liquids, and gases are the three states in which matter can be found. Ice is a solid, water is a liquid, and steam is water in a gaseous state. Therefore, matter exists in all three states.

Question 2. How can you ascertain the material’s physical characteristics?

We are aware that everything we see is made of something. They take up space and have mass. It’s crucial to realise that not all matter has the same physical characteristics. One common illustration of this fact is the fact that while sand particles are insoluble in water, salt particles are. Therefore, these elements can be referred to as matter’s physical characteristics.

Question 3. What is Diffusion?

In matter, particles are constantly in motion. Diffusion is the term used to describe the natural mixing of particles from two different materials. The diffusion of these particles inside the substance speeds up as the temperature rises. It gets faster because as the temperature rises, the kinetic energy of the particles rises as well. They move quickly as a result.

Introduction

Acids can take lone pairs of electrons from other substances, ions, or molecules. Whereas, Bases are those substances, ions, or molecules that can transfer lone pairs of electrons, whereas based on specific experimental findings, chemical substances were initially categorized as bases and acid substances were initially categorized as bases and acids based on specific experimental outcomes. The Arrhenius concept, the Bronsted-Lowry concept, the solvent system concept, the Lux-flood concept, and the Lewis concept are some of the more well-known contemporary acid-base concepts.

Acid Strength

The ability of an acid to separate into hydrogen ions (\({H^ + }\)) and anions in an aqueous solution are known as its acidic strength. It is represented by the HA chemical formula. The strongest bases are located at the top right of the graph, and the strongest acids are located at the top left. A strong base’s conjugate acid is a weak acid because a strong acid’s conjugate base is weak.

Calculating acid strength with the aid of the equilibrium constant (\({K_a}\)). As a result, chemicals like sulphuric acid \({H_2}S{O_4}\), nitric acid \(HN{O_3}\), and hydrochloric acid HCl are acidic.

\[HA \leftrightarrow {H^ + } + \;{A^ – }\]

For example, 

\[HCl{\rm{ }}\left( {aq} \right){\rm{ }} + {H_2}O\left( l \right) \leftrightarrow {H_3}{O^ + }\left( {aq} \right) + \;C{l^ – }\left( {aq} \right)\]

Here, HCl has a greater tendency to lose a proton and therefore, equilibrium shifts more towards the right.

\({K_a} = \frac{{\Pr oducts}}{{{\mathop{\rm Re}\nolimits} ac\tan ts}} = \frac{{[{H_3}{O^ + }][C{l^ – }]}}{{[HCl][{H_2}O]}}\)

Accordingly, \({K_a}\) is used to describe the strength of only those acids that are weaker than \({H_3}{O^ + }\), and Kb is used to describe the strength of only those bases that are weaker than \(O{H^ – }\). Acidity is represented by the constant \({K_a}\).

The term “\(p{K_a}\) value” is sometimes used to define an element’s acidity. The dissociation constant’s negative logarithm is known as the \(p{K_a}\) value.

\(p{K_a} = {\rm{ }} – log{\rm{ }}{K_a}\,and\,p{K_b} =  – \log {K_b}\)

Strong and Weak Acids

Acids that have a great ability to donate protons are referred to as strong acids. Similar to this, weak acids are those acids, like acetic acid and carbonic acid, that have a high tendency to receive protons. The susceptibility of the base to accept its proton often determines the acid’s strength.

\[{\bf{C}}{{\bf{H}}_{\bf{3}}}{\bf{COOH}}{\rm{ }} + {\bf{N}}{{\bf{H}}_{\bf{3}}} \to {\bf{C}}{{\bf{H}}_{\bf{3}}}{\bf{CO}}{{\bf{O}}^ – } + {\bf{N}}{{\bf{H}}^{{\bf{4}} + }}\]

\[{\bf{C}}{{\bf{H}}_{\bf{3}}}{\bf{COOH}}{\rm{ }} + {{\bf{H}}_{\bf{2}}}{\bf{O}} \to {\bf{C}}{{\bf{H}}_{\bf{3}}}{\bf{CO}}{{\bf{O}}^ – } + {{\bf{H}}_{\bf{3}}}{{\bf{O}}^{ + \;}}\;\]

Acetic acid behaves as a strong acid with ammonia in this reaction, but as a weak acid in water. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Nitric acid HNO3 and Sulphuric acid H2SO4 are examples of strong acids because they dissociate into ions completely in water.

Acid Strength Determining Factors

The relative conjugate base of acid also affects its strength. On the other hand, the weak conjugate base makes up the strong acid. The weak acid consists of a strong conjugate base.

• Effect of hybridization: Electronegativity and the s-character of the atom both impact how acidic the molecule is. The conjugate base will be more stable the more s-character there are in the hybrid orbitals.
• Periodic trends: The second row of the periodic table shows an increase in acid strength as we move from left to right because the acid gets stronger as the conjugate base gets weaker.
• Resonance effect: When the conjugate base is resonance stabilized, the acid strength rises.
• Inductive effect: The pull of electron density across an atom’s bonds was defined by the indicative effect. The more electronegativity, the stronger the effect; they are exactly proportional to one another.

Order of Acid Strength

The charge density determines an atom’s protons-accepting tendency (or electron pair donation) if there is a significant difference in the size of the atoms that receive the proton. The proton is more strongly drawn to a stronger negative charge.

Comparing the basic strengths of each conjugate base makes it relatively simple to compare the acidity of the bases. The basic strength of halides, for instance, varies as F>Cr> Br>I. This clarifies the order of conjugate acid strength, which is HF <HCL <HBr <HI.

Factors Affecting Acid Strength

The following factors influence an element’s acid strength:

• The polarity of bonds The acid strength of the H-A bond depends on its polarity. The proton tends to leave the molecule more readily when the link is extremely polar, making the molecule a strong acid.
• Bond strength- It is based on how strong the H-A bond is. The energy needed to break a bond decreases with bond strength. As a result, acids are stronger. When comparing the acid strengths of elements belonging to the same group in the periodic table, however, bond strength becomes more significant.

Summary

The information above has given you a thorough understanding of the strength of acid and base. It is found that the basicity or acidity of a chemical is greatly influenced by the inductive effects and charge delocalization. The types of bonds that an ion forms have a significant impact on the acid-base strength of a molecule. The possibility that \({H^ + }\) ions may dissociate increases with the strength of the bonding between protons and anions. In addition, the dissociation of \({H^ + }\) is enhanced by any factor that helps to stabilize the lone pair on the conjugate base.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is meant by Dissociation?
Ans: Chemical compounds with ionic connections, such as salts, can be divided into simpler compounds like ions, radicals, or atoms by a process called dissociation.

For example,

\(C{H_3}COOH\) dissociated into ions as:

\[C{H_3}COOH\left( {aq} \right) \leftrightarrow C{H_3}CO{O^ – }\left( {aq} \right){\rm{ }} + {H^ + }\left( {aq} \right)\]

2. Which acid is thought to be the weakest one in the world?
Ans: Those elements that have a low tendency to donate protons due to their high negative charge and which attracts protons more strongly are considered the weakest acid. Hence, hydrogen fluoride (HF) is considered the world’s weakest acid.

3. Even though acetic acid is very soluble in water, why is it characterized as a weak electrolyte?
Ans: The electrolyte’s strength is determined by how ionized it is in solution, not by its concentration. Due to its minimal ionization, acetic acid is a weak acid. It is more soluble because of a hydrogen connection between it and water.