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Introduction

Gautama Buddha is a well-known personality who was a brilliant spiritual teacher and taught others the importance of life from the historic period. Although there were many spiritual leaders like Gautama Buddha, it was his spiritual wisdom that propelled him to fame. In the early years of his life, he began to pursue spirituality and put forth an effort to spread it amongst people. He established several religious communities and delivered life’s fundamental lessons. In order to share his beliefs with the common people, he traveled throughout north India. Incredible examples of Buddha’s wisdom can be found in his stories Among all tales, “Kisagotami and the Mustard Seeds” is one of the most well-known.

Story of Kisagotami

A young woman named Kisagotami used to live long ago. She was a married woman with a little son. At that time, a dreadful sickness swept over the village. People began to become ill and even start dying. The sickness affected Kisagotami’s son as well as other residents of that village. The young boy died of the disease. Kisagotami was so shocked that she had trouble accepting the loss of her son. She took her son to several persons and instructed them to provide medication and revive him back to life. Everyone was attempting to explain to her that her kid had passed away. However, she disregarded them all and went to different people in search of her son’s medications.

After some time, a noble individual informed her that while he was unable to provide her with a cure for her son, he knew someone who did. The man instructed the woman to speak with the Buddha at his monastery. After hearing what he had to say, Kisagotami went right there. The woman begged the Buddha to give her son some medicine to treat him so that he would live.

Buddha understood her condition and instructed Kisagotami to obtain mustard seeds from any house in the city. Kisagotami was delighted to hear this and she believed she could organize something so simple very easily. However, Buddha continued and said that he required mustard seeds from that house where no one had ever died. Hearing this instruction, In the village, she walked from door to door. Everyone was ready to provide her with seeds. Then she inquired as to if anyone had ever passed away in their home, to this every household responded that at least one or the other person had passed away in that house.

Kisagotami, meanwhile, realized that everyone had experienced the loss of a loved one at least once in their lifetime. She finally understood that no one in the world can escape death and that death is inevitable. She then buried her kid and recovered from the pain of losing him. She praised  Buddha for teaching her such a valuable lesson about life. She ultimately decided to follow Buddha.

Teachings of the Story

The legend around Kisagotami and the mustard seeds is well known. It portrays the story of a woman who was unable to cope with the agony of losing her son. And how her interaction with Buddha helped her discover the truth of life. The fundamental ideas of Buddha’s life philosophy are explained in the narrative, they are as follows-

• First, he emphasized the principle of impermanence known as Anicca. This means that nothing in this world is permanent, in his opinion. Everything undergoes a gradual transformation. It is a natural cycle that must occur.
• Impermanence gives birth to suffering, also known as dukkha, which is a very challenging issue. It is the second Buddhist theory. He claimed that pain is a natural part of life. Both our mental and physical wellness are under attack. We have to progressively accept that. More sorrow is brought into people’s lives by their desire to maintain the status quo.
• To live happy lives, we must accept all of life’s situations rather than fighting nature and its laws. The absence of a permanent soul, known as Anatta, completes the three pillars of existence. This proves that no living thing possesses an eternal soul. The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth pervades all of human existence. We should also learn to be selfless and the constant ups and downs of life shouldn’t have an impact on us.
• These three facets of life’s existence are relevant to everyone in the world. Without Buddha’s theories, mankind could have suffered more as a result of their limitless ambitions.
• After coming to terms with the reality of the world’s transience, Kisagotmai went back to Buddha and made the decision to enter his monastery as a nun.

Summary

Nirvana, which is a Buddhist euphemism for salvation, was one of the religion’s key principles. Kisagotami began traveling the path to nirvana and eventually rose to the position of a respected nun in one of the Buddhist monasteries. Buddha discussed the idea of Nirvana throughout the entire narrative. Nirvana describes a person’s state as being devoid of worldly desires. The attachment to loved ones is what causes the sorrow. Only nirvana can release individuals from attachments and stop the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. People from all across the world are currently dealing with circumstances similar to Kisagotami. In the end, people must realize that the world is filled with sorrow and that desires are its primary source. In order to prevent suffering, one must conquer desire, which opens the door to nirvana.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Where did Kisagotami join as a nun?
Ans: As a nun, Kisagotami joined the Jeetvana monastery, which at the time housed the Buddha. It is present-day Uttar Pradesh.

2. Why didn’t Buddha inform Kisagotami about the death of her son?
Ans: Buddha wished to help her comprehend and come to terms with the reality of life.

There was a probability that Kisagotami would not have accepted the truth about the death of her son if he had told her directly and would remain in her sadness for a long time.

3. How can one reach nirvana?
Ans: The eight-fold route, also known as the Ashtangika Marga or eight-fold path, consists of the following: observation, determination, meditation, memory, speech, means of livelihood, action, and exercise. It is the way to reach nirvana.

Introduction

The late 18th century in France was a period of turmoil and hardship in society. People were constantly protesting against the reigning monarch Louis XVI, the working class and peasantry were becoming increasingly unhappy, the society was experiencing an economic crisis, people were protesting for their rights etc. On July 14, 1789, people started opposing the monarch violently, as the rumour was spread that the king had instructed the soldiers to fire on protesters. They made a military of 7000 people and stormed the state fortress jail, the Bastille, looking for ammunition. They destroyed government buildings and other facilities. This was the beginning of the French Revolution.

Society during 18th century France

French society is divided into 3 classes,

• The first class-which comprises clergy and wealthy people.
• The second class-which comprises noblemen.
• The third-class -comprises the other remaining society which includes all people, from merchants, businessmen, small peasants, servants etc.
• Both the upper classes had all the privileges while the third class played for their privileges and lived in poverty, with a lack of food and political recognition.
• With the population growth, the amount of food started falling short. And due to bad harvest, there was a severe scarcity of food. This led to fights between people for food and other resources.
• Due to the shortage of grains, the prices of the available food grains were increased to a great extent and as a result, the people of the third-class experienced food scarcity even more.
• The social conditions during the 18th century were very bad and hence were one of the reasons for the French Revolution to take place.

The outbreak of the revolution

The outbreak of the revolution took place in the following way-

• The controller general of finances, Charles de Calonne, organized the assembly of nobles in February 1787 to discuss the increase in tax to eliminate the budget deficit. He proposed the privileged class should be taxed, but the assembly rejected that proposal.
• The monarch convened the assembly of estate generals on May 5, 1789. The clergy, the noble estate, sent 300 representatives, while 600 individuals were sent by the third estate which had to assemble in the back of the room.
• In this assembly, each estate had one vote to give despite the number of individuals. The third estate wanted that each member should get the right to vote in the assembly. This demand of the third class was not accepted, and hence they walked out of the assembly.
• The representatives of the Third State then gathered on June 20 in the Versailles Hall where they proclaimed themselves to be the national assembly with the mission of drafting the French constitution to restrain the monarch’s authority. The first estates also joined hands with the third estate and the national constituent assembly was formed.
• In October, the assembly was introduced to restrict the powers of the king and distribute them amongst different institutions.
• The national assembly was indirectly elected and granted the authority to enact laws. Men over 25 who paid taxes were given the ability to vote.
• Although the king had signed the constitution, he secretly negotiated with the king of Prussia and other neighbouring rulers to send the troops to end the national assembly, but before it could happen the national assembly itself declared war on Austria and Prussia in 1792.
• Later that year, the assembly reassembled and decided to arrest the royal family.
• As part of the reforms, all men over 21 were now permitted to vote, regardless of their income.
• Following the election, the national assembly changed into the national convention, which on September 21, 1792, declared France to be a republic and dissolved the monarchy.

Summary

One of the most significant historical occurrences was the French Revolution. It was a struggle between the common people and France’s autocratic ruler. It was the first time that individuals battled for freedom and liberty. All subsequent revolutions were greatly impacted by the French Revolution, which marked a turning point in the struggle for liberty.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What exactly were tithes?
Ans: The church collected tithes as a form of interest tax. Tithes included one-tenth of the agricultural output.

2. Which club did the Jacobins belong to?
Ans: The Jacobins Club was an underground organization made up of regular people during the French Revolution that was instrumental in overthrowing the monarchy in 1792. This group included small peasants, shopkeepers, laborers etc.

3. Why did the enraged mob storm the Bastille?
Ans: An enraged mob broke into the Bastille early on July 14, 1789, and destroyed the structure because it was a symbol of the monarch’s repressive and tyrannical rule.

Introduction

A monastery is a location where spiritual activities are carried out, typically consisting of a group of structures. Monks and nuns, respectively, are the terms used to describe those who reside there. These are home to those who have decided to live in seclusion from civilization. These monasteries are situated where there is no disturbance. Here, individuals either lived in communities or alone. Monasteries are places where people go to remember the universal force through practices like prayer, chanting, etc.

Classification of Monasteries 

Based on the duties of the monks, there are various sorts of monasteries. Generally, there are four different types of monasteries:

Solitary type of Monastery

A person lives alone in a solitary monastery. He isolates himself from everything and tries to concentrate on his religion.

The monastery with the community system

It refers to a monastery where two or more individuals lived together as a group. Here, rigorous laws and customs are upheld.

Mendicant type of Monastery

The monks who live here must approach other individuals on foot to ask for alms. Therefore, monks found this form of monastic life to be rather challenging.

Combined Monastery 

Monks are supposed to play roles in societal institutions like hospitals and schools in this kind of monastery.

Monasteries in Ancient India 

Monastery of Buddhism

In about 400 BCE, the Buddhist Monastery was founded. Monks living in this type of monastery, are recommended to settle down for a while rather than move around. The Vassa retreats took place in parks, where wealthy followers used to donate to the sangha. Cenobitic monasticism, in which monks and nuns lived for a year in monasteries, evolved through time into the norm of the entire sangha residing in one region during the recess of the Vassa.

During the Buddhist era, many educational institutions were established. It became quite well-known and spread all over the world. Hemis Monastery in Ladakh, Tawang Monastery in Arunachal Pradesh, Rumtek Monastery in Sikkim, etc. are a few of the well-known Buddhist monasteries in India.

The Monastery of Christianity

In Egypt City, the first Christian monastery was established. Following that, monasteries were established in various locations. A cenobitic monastery was a brand-new sort of monastery that Pachomius introduced. The monks and nuns shared one space in this style of the monastery. Furthermore, they carried out every task, including working and worshipping, in unison. The monk who used to live by himself but took on all the duties was known as a hermit.

The Monastery of Hinduism

It is possible to date the Hindu Monastery’s existence to the prehistoric era. Hindu monasteries were constructed in the Vedic era. Mathas is the name of the monasteries. India is home to several well-known maths, including Chatur-Amnaya, Belur Math, Gorkana Matha, Kasi Matha, and Kathia Baba ka Sthaan in Vrindavan.

Monastery of Jainism

Mahavira introduced Jainism in the fifth century BC. He built his Monastery so that he might engage in spirituality. The five pillars of the monastic way of life were honesty, non-possession, non-stealing, non-violence, and consistency in one’s sexual behavior. One of the most well-known religions in the world was Jainism.

Importance of Monasteries 

Monasteries have a significant influence on those who pursue spirituality and come from various religious backgrounds. These monasteries have an enormous impact on social life in addition to having an impact within their walls. The monastery is home to several schools, universities, and other educational institutions. Additionally, it extends outside of India. The monastery has contributed significantly to the realm of medical services in addition to serving educational purposes. The following are some of the monastery’s salient characteristics:

• Monasteries were founded to assist universal power and in pursuit of information about it.
• Spreading knowledge among common people is one of a monastery’s most significant responsibilities.
• Monasteries also include significant aspects related to the distribution of food, clothing, and other accessories.
• In the monastery, monks live and care for the residents without regard to cost or value. Additionally, they assist unprivileged families by giving them a contribution.

Summary

People living in the monastery go about their everyday lives, practicing their responsibilities and tasks regularly. To allow monks and nuns to focus peacefully on their spiritual lives, monasteries are typically built-in places that are removed from social and political influences. Monasteries have a significant impact on how society develops on emotional, social, and cultural levels. The monasteries have undergone significant modification and development in modern times. These monasteries now provide a variety of facilities and cutting-edge technologies. These days, the location is visited by people, who are accommodated.

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Name the oldest monasteries in the world.
Ans. The oldest monasteries in existence are those of St. Macarius (Deir Abu Makar) and St. Anthony (Deir Mar Antonios), both of which are governed by the Patriarch of the Coptic Orthodox Church.

2. Who was Pachomius?
Ans. Pachomius, commonly known as St. Pachomius, founded the Christian community monasticism known as cenobitic. Through his teachings on various ascetical practices, he inspired thousands of Christians to begin living as such.

3. Why did people join monasteries in ancient times?
Ans. People in ancient times were upset with the superstitions and complexities of religion. Therefore, people began settling into monasteries to live modest lives to find solace, enjoy independence, and overcome the misery of the world.

4. Which is the oldest monastery in India and which religion it belongs to?
Ans. Although not the biggest, India’s oldest monastery is Hemis Monastery in Ladakh. The monastery reportedly dates to the eleventh century and was re-established in 1652. The revered thangkas and famous, historic treasures are kept in this monastery.

5. Why didn’t Islam support the monastic culture?
Ans. The Islamic faith holds that since humans and God have a direct line of communication, they do not require a mediator like a monk or a nun to do so.

Introduction

The wind is a metaphorical poem written by Subramania Bharati. The wind is a metaphor for all of the challenges, hardships, and impediments that we encounter in life. The wind is described by the poet as being fierce and breaking everything in its path. It shatters the window shutters, scatters papers, knocks volumes off of shelves, and even rips pages from books.  Along with people’s hearts and lives, its strength also totally destroys homes, doors, and rafters. The poet makes a connection between this strong wind and life’s challenges, hurdles, and struggles.

Summary

The poet requested that the wind blow gently in the first stanza so that it would not do damage to the bookshelves or shatter window shutters. In the second stanza, the window disregards the poet’s advice and discards the books along with their torn pages. The wind begins to exclude weaklings like rafters, doors, and buildings that are actually weak hearts.

The poet then suggests that, on the other side, wind aids in flourishing, much like fire and wheat winnowing. In this approach, he urged people to persevere through all challenges. The world always kicks the weak, but the strong always overcome difficulties. The only way to be friends with the wind or challenges in one’s life is in this way.

The word “crumbling” was used repeatedly in the following paragraph to emphasise how everything crumbles in the presence of a strong wind.   According to him, everything that is weak, including buildings, doors, beams, wooden structures, human and animal bodies, etc., falls and collapses. The poet is trying to convey that when the wind is very strong and powerful, everything breaks.  

He refers to the wind as the “wind god” in the line that follows, and he claims that the strong god of the wind “examines,” which means that it shifts people and the weak fall and are crushed. As a result, the poet here made a connection between people and wheat. The wind god separates the strong people from the weak ones in the same manner that we sort the wheat to separate the grain from the chaff. Furthermore, everything that is weak falls and gets crushed when there is a strong wind.

About the poet

Subramania Bharati, a Tamil poet, wrote the poem wind in that language. He was highly recognised for Tamil literary work and patriotism in the British era. A.K. Ramanuja, who has translated a lot of classical and contemporary poetry, later rendered the poem “Wind” in Kannada and English. In order to overcome life’s challenges rather than giving up on them, the poet hoped to encourage readers with this poetry.

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Conclusion

In this poem, the author effectively conveys the force of the wind by calling it “ruinous.” He also contrasts life’s difficulties with the wind’s destructive power. Only individuals who possess guts and confidence can overcome these challenges and triumph. He claims that strong people come out more grounded while frail folks fall apart pretty readily.

The Wind Poem Textbook Questions and Answers

1. What are the things the wind does in the first stanza?

Ans: The windy wind is described in the first stanza as breaking window shutters, scattering papers, tossing all books from the shelf to the ground, and tearing the book’s pages apart.

2. Have you seen anybody winnow gain at home or in a paddy field? What is the word in your language for winnowing? What do people use for winnowing? (Give  the words in your language if you know them.)

Ans: Yes, we have observed winnowing of grain at home. This is a typical practise in India, particularly in rural areas. Winnowing is used to separate the wheat from the chaff. It is a method of cleaning wheat in which the grain is flung from a height, where it falls to the ground while the light chaff and dust are carried away by the wind. The terminology for the winnowing procedure in various Indian languages include “phatkna,” “pichorna,” and “Barsana,” among others. A certain type of basket and, in some locations, a container known as a “Chaaj,” are both used for winnowing.

II

1. What does the poet say the wind god winnows?

Ans: The weak creatures in nature are separated from the strong ones by the wind that God winnows. The strong wind tosses anything that is weak, and it destroys it. The wind deity separates the weak from the strong, just like a winnower separates wheat grains from chaff.

2. What should we do to make friends with the wind?

Ans: The poet advises making your body and ears robust to be least affected by the stormy wind, as well as creating strong walls and doors, in order to be friends with the wind.

3. What does the last four line of the poem mean to you?

Ans: The poem’s final four words convey an important message: In the face of adversity, the strong people become stronger and triumph. On the other hand, those who are strong and determined face obstacles head-on, and rather than destroying them, problems in their lives serve to sharpen them or aid in their success.

Extra Questions

The author encourages us to be strong both mentally and physically, so that the wind can be our ally. The wind is used as a metaphor for the difficulties and challenges that we all encounter in our lives. The poem emphasizes the importance of facing these challenges with courage and resilience. The author suggests that we need to be strong in the face of adversity, so that we can confront it with confidence and determination. Ultimately, the poem highlights the power of nature and the role it can play in helping us to navigate life’s challenges.

2. Why does the poet want the wind to blow gently?

The poet asks the wind to be gently because he wants people to appreciate it rather than letting it be destructive and turbulent, which only brings about destruction in the world.

3. What does the poem’s “metaphor” mean?

The metaphor “Wind” is used in this poem to represent a challenging scenario that harms some people while benefiting others simultaneously.

4. What is the poem’s hidden message or symbolism?

Ans: We all have trials and obstacles in life, but Subramania Bharati’s poem Wind conveys the idea that we should be resilient enough to overcome them. A weak person crumbles and falls like a weak building, yet a strong person will still prevail over these obstacles.

Introduction

Mammals, fish, amphibians, birds, and reptiles are among the five classes into which animals are divided. Each one of them needs the environment to survive, including air, food, water, and shelter. The only vertebrates that live part of their lives in water and part on land are amphibians. As a result, they differ from other animal species. An amphibian is a tiny vertebrate organism that requires water or a moist environment to exist. As amphibian’s body temperatures are influenced by their surroundings and they can thrive in both terrestrial and aquatic habitats, they are also referred to as cold-blooded vertebrates. Frogs, toads, newts, caecilians, and salamanders are amphibians.

Characteristics of Class Amphibia

Body 

• Amphibian bodies are separated into the head, trunk, and tail. Few amphibians just have a head and a tail (frogs). The neck can be absent or present.
• Some amphibians are limbless, while others have two sets of pentadactyl limbs.
• The skin is smooth, moist, scale-free, and abundant with mucous glands.

Sense organs

• Amphibians have two olfactory lobes that are responsible for their ability to smell.
• Eyes are well developed.
• Although they lack an external ear, the tympanum shields their middle ear.

Digestive system

• Amphibians have digestive systems that include the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestine closing in a division called the cloaca.
• Cloaca participates in the digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems.

Circulatory system

• Amphibians have a closed circulatory system.
• They have three-chambered hearts, that are made up of two auricles and one ventricle.
• There are two circulatory paths; one is for the oxygenation of the blood through the lungs and skin and another route is to carry oxygen to the remaining parts of the body.
• However, there is incomplete double circulation because the oxygenated blood obtained in the left atrium and the deoxygenated blood received in the right atrium mix very slightly.

Diet

• Invertebrates like bloodworms, mealworms, earthworms, snails, slugs, locusts, and other creatures are eaten by amphibians. Larger amphibians can also consume small mammals.
• Young frogs require food most days of the week, whereas adult frogs only require it every two to three days.

Excretory system

• Amphibians have mesonephric kidneys during the adult stage and have pronephric kidneys at the larval stage.
• When on land, they expel the majority of their metabolic waste as ammonia (in tail form) and urea (in tailless forms).
• Kidneys are the primary excretory organ of amphibians.

Reproduction

• Amphibians can be fertilized internally (by a salamander) or externally (by most amphibians).
• They attract their mates by making various sounds; for instance, the loud croaking of frogs may be a signal for mates.
• Since the eggs don’t have shells and get dry when kept on land, the eggs must be laid in freshwater.

Classification of Amphibia

Based on their order, amphibians can be divided into three groups they are-

Apoda (Gymnophiona or Caecilia)

• The body is elongated and can be differentiated into the head and trunk. 
• They do not have limbs and hence resemble earthworms.
• They have small dermal scales
• As their eyes are covered by bone or skin, they are known as blind worms.
• They lack tails or may have short tails.
• Internal fertilization takes place.
• Eg-Caecilians

Urodela (Caudata)

• The body is long and differentiated into a head, neck, tail, and four limbs which are of similar length.
• Their skin is smooth and moist.
• Through their skin, they breathe.
• At both the larval and adult stages, they have teeth in their jaws.
• They are incapable of making sounds.
• They undergo fertilization either internally or externally.
• Examples-Newts and Salamanders

Anura (Salientia)

• The body is differentiated into the head and trunk. But both of them are fused.
• They have four limbs that are designed specifically for jumping.
• Their mouth is large.
• At the larval stage, the tail is present and the adult tail is absent.
• Due to the presence of a chemical called magainin, the skin secretions of anurans have a naturally occurring antibiotic effect.
• In anurans, external fertilization takes place.
• Examples: Toads and frogs

Scientific Classification of Amphibia

The scientific classification of amphibians is as follows-

Domain	Eukaryote
Kingdom	Animalia
Phylum	Chordata
Subphylum	Vertebrata
Class	Amphibia
Order	Urodela  Apoda Anura

Summary 

Cold-blooded creatures called amphibians descended from lobe-finned fish. When they are larvae, they can survive in water, but as adults, they must live on land. Frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and caecilians are some examples of amphibians that are grouped into orders such as  Apoda, Urodela, and Anura. They have different body types. During the younger stage they breathe through the skin(gills) and as they reach adulthood, their lungs develop and they now breathe through both skin and lungs.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Explain metamorphosis.
Ans: Metamorphosis is the term used to describe the changes an animal undergoes during its life cycle. When a frog egg hatches, a tadpole is released, which first grows rear legs then develops the front legs, and then finally becomes an adult frog.

2. Give the 5 kingdom classification with examples.
Ans: The 5 kingdom of classification was proposed by RH Whittaker in 1969. 

The 5 kingdom classification is-

• Kingdom Monera- it includes the prokaryotes.
• Kingdom Protista- it includes single-celled eukaryotes.
• Kingdom Fungi- it includes various fungi.
• Kingdom Plantae- it includes all types of plants
• Kingdom Animalia- it includes all types of animals.

3. How do amphibians breathe?
Ans: The majority of amphibians can breathe through their skin, which is a thin, permeable organ that is dense with blood vessels. In their larval stage, some aquatic animals, like frogs, have gills that absorb oxygen from the water and expel carbon dioxide as waste.

Introduction

The different forms of \({H_2}O\) in three different phases are ice (solid), water (liquid), and gas (vapour). The intermolecular spaces in solid particles are very low, they are tightly bound to each other. The intermolecular spaces are comparatively higher in liquids and become maximum in vapours. With the increase in temperature, the kinetic energy of the molecule increases, and the intermolecular interaction between the particles decreases. That is why, on the application of heat, ice is transformed into water and then to vapour Melting and boiling depend on the pressure of the environment. On this basis, a pressure cooker is used to make food in daily life.

What is the melting point of ice?

The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which a solid and liquid phase may coexist in equilibrium, and the temperature at which matter changes from solid to liquid form. The term applies to pure liquids and solutions. The melting point depends on pressure, so it should be specified. This melting point of ice is 0℃. If the temperature increases beyond the melting point, it doesn’t increase the temperature of the matter. Rather, it helps to transform the ice completely into the water. This is known as the ‘latent heat of fusion’ of ice.

What is the boiling point of water? 

With the addition of further heat, the water (liquid) reaches its vapour phase (gaseous state) at a particular temperature. This is the boiling point of water. The boiling point of water is 100℃. The heat that helps to convert the whole water into the gaseous state is known as the ‘latent heat of vaporisation’ of water. 

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Method to determine the melting point of ice:

The melting point of ice is 0℃. It is determined in a laboratory in the following steps-

• Some ice cubes are taken in a beaker and a thermometer is dipped in it. 
• Heat is applied gently by the Bunsen burner below the beaker.
• The changes in the state of the ice are monitored every minute and the temperature is recorded at which the whole ice is transformed into water. 
• The temperature at which the ice starts melting is noted as \({t_1}\) and the temperature when all the ice melts is noted as \({t_2}\).
• Then the average of \({t_1}\) and \({t_2}\) is calculated. This mean temperature is known as the melting point of ice. 

In this way, the melting point of ice is determined.

Method to determine the boiling point of water:

The water boils at 100℃. It is measured in the laboratory in the following steps-

• A suitable amount of water is taken in a round bottom flask and its mouth is sealed properly with a rubber cork. 
• A thermometer is inserted through a hole in the cork into the r.b flask without touching the water surface. 
• The r.b flask is then heated by a Bunsen burner, and placed on the bottom of a wire gauge supported by a tripod stand. 
• A thermometer reading is taken at a certain interval and the temperatures are recorded. 
• A thermometer reading is taken continuously throughout the boiling of water. 

In such a way, the boiling point of water is measured. 

Factors influencing the melting point and boiling point: 

Factors	Melting point	Boiling point
Pressure	With an increase in pressure, the melting point decreases.	With an increase in pressure, the boiling point increases.
Impurities	Impurities like soluble salts decrease the melting point.	The presence of impurities increases the boiling point.
Size of substance	With an increase in the size of the substance, the melting point increases.	With an increase in the size of thesubstance, van der Waals interaction increases henceboiling point increases.
Intermolecular forces	The melting point increases with an increase in intermolecular interactions, as more energy is needed for bond cleavage.	The stronger the intermolecular forces, the lower the vapour pressure. As a result, the boiling point increases.

Summary: 

The temperature at which ice starts to melt into water is called the melting point of ice (0℃). And the temperature at which water starts to form vapour is termed the boiling point of water (100℃). Intermolecular interaction decreases while moving from ice to water to gas. So, through the melting point of a solid and the boiling point of the liquid, one can have an idea about the extent of interaction among the particles. Moreover, the presence of impurities can be determined from the melting and boiling point values. 

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Can the size of a molecule affect the melting point value?

Ans: With an increase in size, the van der Waals forces among the molecules increases. As the melting point highly depends on attractive forces i.e. van der Waals interaction, the size can impact the melting point value of the molecule. 

2. Why is the boiling point of water always considered to be 100℃?

Ans: The liquid will start to boil once the vapour pressure of the liquid matches the atmospheric pressure in the region. The point at which water boils is highly influenced by the vapour pressure. At 100℃, the vapour pressure around sea level equals the surrounding air pressure. So, it is considered the boiling point of water. 

3. How can one identify a substance by its melting point?

Ans: Various organic, as well as inorganic compounds, can be identified from their melting point. Also, the extent of purity can be known from their melting point values. If the substance is pure, it will show a sharp melting point instead of a range of melting points in case of an impure substance. 

Introduction

A “mixture” is a combination of two or more substances, such as water and sand, salt and water, or a solution of two solutes, for example. These mixtures are not chemically linked. Hand-picking, winnowing, filtration, distillation, and other techniques are used to separate them. The mixture can be solid in solid, liquid in liquid, gas in gas, and so on. Seawater is also a salt-water mixture. The “evaporation method” is used to separate salt from seawater. Different techniques are used to separate different types of mixtures.

Methods of Separating Mixtures:

Depending on the type of mixture, there are various methods for separating it. In 1840, some prospectors used water to separate gold from a mud mixture; the mud containing gold was filled with water in a pan.

After a while, the pan was twisted to remove the dissolved material, and gold settled in the pan due to its weight. Panning is the process of separating gold from water.

Substances in our environment exist as mixtures, of which there are two types: “homogenous” and “heterogeneous” mixtures.

Different techniques are used to separate them.

Hand-picking: 

The hand-picking method is used to separate the mixtures that are less in quantity and the size of the particle is big. It is usually used to separate stones from grains, rice pulses, etc at home and groceries shops. In this type both the components are in solid form, these are big enough to separate them by hand.

Threshing:

This method is widely used to separate grains from twigs. Farmers use this method to separate hard wheat, rice, pulses, and other grains from their stalks. When food grains reach maturity, the farmer harvests and dry them in the field.

Winnowing:

This method is used to separate the husk from grain or pulses with the help of “ wind” that’s why it is named “winnowing”. 

• In this method, the grains separated by the threshing method contains small twigs, and a husk that is quite thin and light in weight. 
• The grains containing husk are taken in a winnowing basket. The farmer stands at a particular height, taking that basket in the direction of the wind. 
• The farmer falls the grains, the husk, and the twigs get separated by the flow of wind and the grains get cleaned.

Evaporation

1. To separate the mixture into liquid form, “the evaporation technique” is used. The volatile material evaporates, leaving behind a non-volatile solid in the container.
2. The mixture is heated in this method until the liquid portion of the mixture evaporates.
3. The mixture’s solid component is left in the container.
4. This method separates salt from seawater.

Distillation

The “distillation method” is used to separate two or more mixed liquids.

1. A “distillation apparatus” in this method is a plant that contains a flask, a thermometer, a condenser, and a collecting flask (distillate).
2. The mixture is heated to a specific temperature in the distillation flask.
3. The liquid begins to boil and turns into vapour.
4. This vapour is collected in a “distillate” after being condensed in a condenser.

Filtration 

It is a common technique for separating liquids from insoluble solids.

1. The “filter paper” is used in the filtration process to separate liquid from the mixture that is large enough to become trapped in the porous material.
2. To separate water from a sand and water mixture.
3. Heavy impurities are settled down during the sedimentation process.
4. The first liquid, which is above, is then slowly separated from the flask.
5. This method is used to separate mud and water mixtures.

Summary

The elements in the environment are found in combination with other elements. These are both homogenous and heterogeneous mixtures. The mixture can exist as a liquid, solid, or gas. The two materials are not chemically bonded. Depending on the type of mixture, different methods are used to separate it.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. How are the essential oils extracted from the flowers?

Ans. Steam distillation is used to separate the essential oils. The liquid is converted into steam in this process, and the steam vaporises the material with it before being condensed and separated in a retort.

2. Which mixture is separated using cryogenic distillation?

Ans. This method is used to separate the acid gas mixture from the gaseous mixture, LPG, and is similar to removing CO2 from LPG.

3. How are fatty acids, resins, and wax separated from the mixture?

Ans. Drugs, esters, fatty acids, tocopherols, resins, and wax are separated from mixtures using short-path distillation.

Introduction

Mixing various compounds is a key aspect of Chemistry. In science, a mixture is a substance mixed with 2 or more relatively simple materials. These substances can be either elements or compounds. Compounds are unadulterated substances. They are composed of the same molecules. A compound’s molecules are made up of two or more different types of atoms that are chemically bonded together. Mixtures are composed of two or more substances — elements or compounds — that are physically but not chemically combined; they lack atomic bonds. Pure substances are elements and compounds that contain only one type of molecule. A mixture is made up of two or more different types of pure substances. In a mixture, the molecules of these substances do not form any chemical bonds. A mixture’s components retain their chemical independence while physically blending together. These components are frequently visible and distinguishable visually.

What is a Mixture?

A mixture would be a substance made up of 2 or even more components that have been physically mixed to maintain the characteristics of those constituents. In plenty of other terms, the properties of a mixture have been fully determined by the components that are present. We may divide the mixture into groups based on particle size as well as uniformity.

Types of Mixtures

Mixtures can often be divided into two types:

1. Homogeneous Mixtures
2. Heterogeneous Mixtures

Homogeneous Mixtures

Homogeneous mixtures are those that have the same composition but also characteristics across their mass as well as body. Light does not flow via these elements. Sugar syrup, alcohol, as well as water are all homogeneous mixtures with particles of varying sizes that make identification difficult.

Heterogeneous Mixture

Heterogeneous mixtures include those mixtures that do not dissolve properly but also do not have similar content. Particular elements are frequently detectable and might even be isolated using both chemicals and physical properties due to such characteristics. Suspensions, as well as colloids, are often the 2 types of heterogeneous mixtures. For example, water and sand, blood, or starch.

What are Compounds

Compounds are atomic components as well as other elements that are linked collectively with a chemical bond. Depending on the substance, such a bond might be ionic, covalent, as well as metallic. Because all compounds possess a fixed ratio of components, they are uniform. Certain substances differ from elements that normally mix to form only one compound unit in terms of their characteristics. Furthermore, a chemically bonded molecule cannot ever be physically detached.

Types of Compounds

Compounds are classified into 3 types:

• Ionic compounds: They are made up of two oppositely charged ions. Electrostatic attraction holds the ions connected. Water is usually reactive in ionic compounds.
• Covalent compounds: They’re made up of atoms that exchange electrons and are also non-polar, which means they don’t even react with water.

Examples of Compounds

• Water: This is composed of 2 elements: 2 hydrogens as well as 1 oxygen.
• Methane: It is composed of 2 elements: carbon as well as hydrogen.
• Table salt: Sodium, as well as chlorine, are indeed the 2 elements found in table salt.
• Glucose: It is composed of 3 elements: carbon, hydrogen, as well as oxygen.

What are the differences between Mixtures and Compounds?

Compounds	Mixtures
Chemical interaction between two or more components tends to produce compounds.	Mixtures are introduced by directly integrating two or more elements in such a way that no chemical reaction occurs between both components.
To yield a compound, elements must always join in a defined mass proportion.	The proportion of elements is not set or could change.
Throughout the development of a compound, its energy changes.	There is no change in energy.
It cannot be removed physically and must be separated using sophisticated scientific methods.	Physical separation of mixtures is possible.
The constituents’ properties are lost, or the compound generated has distinct physical as well as chemical properties.	A mixture’s constituents maintain its original properties.
Organic as well as inorganic compounds, both are possible.	Homogenous as well as heterogeneous mixtures can exist.
In compound initiation, new bonds have been generated.	There is no new bond forming.
The melting or boiling points of compounds are fixed.	The melting or boiling points of mixtures are not set.

A mixture is formed by mechanically combining two or more components while retaining their distinct characteristics. It can exist as solutions, suspensions, or colloidal particles. Chemical components and compounds, for example, can be mechanically blended or mixed to form mixtures, but no chemical binding or another type of chemical transformation occurs, so each constituent retains its distinct chemical properties.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the basic types of the mixture?

Ans. Two broad categories of mixtures are- 

• Homogeneous mixtures
• Heterogeneous mixtures

2. Bronze is an alloy or mixture of which metals?

Ans. Bronze is a solid-solid mixture of copper(Cu) and Tin(Sn).

3. The solution is which type of mixture?

Ans. The solution is a homogeneous type of mixture where all the components or substances are uniformly distributed that cannot be separated manually or physically.

Introduction

The Delhi sultanate was the largest empire in medieval India, yet even then, it did not have sovereignty over the vast majority of the Indian peninsula. The chieftains of many petty kingdoms ruled their own territories. These chieftains lived in forts that were impossible to get into since they were extremely defensive and strong.

Chieftains

A chieftain is known as the leader or the head of a tribe or a clan. They are like kings, who rule a particularly small clan or tribe and he is responsible for their protection.  Due to the size of the Indian subcontinent, the Delhi Sultans were unable to rule numerous areas. The Sultans had no influence over remote areas like south India, Bengal, etc. The Sultanate armies were unable to approach remote areas due to forest cover, uneven lands or hilly terrains. Due to the Sultanate’s lack of penetration in these areas, the rule of Chieftains became established, and the population began acting as an independent community.

Fortifications of the Chieftains

Ibn-Battuta, a Moroccan traveler who served as Qazi in Mohammad tughluq’s court, wrote in his works about these chieftains. He said that there were other minor territories that were still autonomous and were ruled by chieftains. Those chiefs used to construct their forts on rocky ground, on hills, or inside bamboo-covered forests. Since an average army could not pass through those dense bamboo trees, the chieftains of those tribes were shielded from the emperor. The chieftains well-secure themselves in these forts built on hills, rocky and uneven difficult locations. They kept water, animals, and food grains inside the forts. Since they have all of these arrangements in place, they are totally independent and they stay inside the fort as long as they want. According to Ibn-Batutta, bamboos in India are not hollow, and when they are interlaced, they form a difficult-to-cross barricade that is also untouched by fire.

Types of forts

The fort’s main objective was to keep the enemy at bay while protecting the chieftains. The monarchs constructed a variety of forts, all of which were difficult to breach and simple to defend. Different kinds of forts constructed are given below-

• Desert Fort or Dhanva Durg- 
  • The term “Desert Fort” or “Dhanva Durg” makes it apparent that these forts were constructed in the middle of the desert. The enemy was naturally kept at bay by the desert.
  • The advantage of this fort was that soldiers could easily observe attackers from a distance, allowing them to be ready for them when they approached.
  • These forts were mostly constructed in Rajasthan by Rajput tribes.
  • These forts were occasionally erected on high ground to provide a better view of the approaching enemy.

• Mud fort or Mahi Durg-
  • Mud fort, also known as Mahi Durg or Rampart fort, had thick mud and bricks covering all of its exterior walls.
  • The fort became significantly more durable and fire-resistant due to this layer.
  • Thick earthen walls acted as a shield and protected the chieftains.

• Water forts
  • In medieval India, these kinds of forts were highly well-known. The kings used to construct their forts in the midst of water bodies, which gave them an additional line of defense.
  • An army couldn’t enter a fort on foot, it had to employ boats, and the men stationed in these forts were prepared to sink boats and kill their soldiers.
  • An illustration of a water fort is the Murud Janjira fort in Maharashtra.

• Hill fort or Giri Durg–
  • Hill forts, also known as Giri Durgs, were forts constructed on hills or a summit. The fort was also surrounded by mountainous terrains.
  • An army would have a very tough time attacking such a fort because the hills were steep and had narrow routes for climbing.
  • The soldiers had an excellent view of a great distance because it was on an elevated platform.
  • The soldiers had time to prepare for battle because the enemies could be seen clearly from a great distance.

• Forest forts or vans forts
  • Forts known as “forest forts” or “vans forts” were constructed in the center of dense forests, making them incredibly difficult to overcome.
  • The forts were initially difficult for the enemy to locate because of the thickness of the forest. As a result, large troops could not enter all at once and conquer this area.
  • The forests also work as camouflage and allowed setting various traps for the attacking soldiers.
  • In his publications, the Moroccan traveler also discusses these kinds of forts. He asserts that numerous petty chieftains once constructed forts in the forest to establish their independence from the sultanate’s power. These forts included all the things which are required for the survival of a clan.

Summary

India’s history has always included forts Although there were many dynastic and political upheavals in medieval India, the building of robust forts remained constant. Each chieftain, emperor, and the king built forts to protect themselves from attacks. In Ibn-, Battuta’s literature we discovered evidence of chieftains strengthening themselves in forest strongholds to fight off raids by powerful rulers. Forts were constructed in such a manner that they had all the resources which are required for the survival of man.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What architectural designs did Rajputana forts use?
Ans: Rajputanas employed the slab-and-beam method, in which stones were placed one above another. Coping stones were used to close up the gaps.

2. What kind of fort did Alauddin Khilji construct for the first time?
Ans: Alauddin Khilji constructed the city fortress complex model for the first time in India. In this fort, the entire city was protected.

3. What were the special qualities of the forts build by the sultans?
Ans: The sultans imported the arch and dome construction method, which the Arabs had adapted from the Romans. In the Indian subcontinent, the Arch and Dome style rose to prominence. During the reign of Alauddin Khilji, it peaked.

Introduction

Romans practiced Christianity as their official religion, and after the fall of the Roman empire, it quickly expanded throughout Europe. Feudal lords and wealthy landowners embraced Christianity. Christianity gradually began to rule daily life in Europe. Pagans (non-Christians) were denied access to state institutions and even punished. The Church rose to become both the most influential institution and the largest landowner. Throughout the medieval era in Europe, the church and the king took on the role of the Piller of the feudal society. The Kings and the churches developed close ties. King Charlemagne gained the support of the Pope by accepting the title of “Holy Roman Emperor” from him in 800 AD in France.

The Three orders

French priests introduced the concept of three sections of society. The three estates or orders in medieval European civilization were established on the principle of grouping people into specific categories.

There were three divisions within society-

• First order- The clergy
• Second order- The nobility
• Third order- The peasantry

First order- The clergy

• The clergy was the earliest and most powerful order in medieval Europe. They were the ones who led society’s spiritual life through prayer.
• This order included all clergy members who worked for the Church, including priests, popes, bishops, and cardinals and they occupied the highest position on the social scale.
• The church possessed its own laws, property, and the authority to tax farmers.
• The church leader was the pope and the European Christians were led by the clergy.
• Physically deformed people could not be priests.
• The priests maintained monogamy.
• Bishops used to reside in magnificent palaces and enjoy an opulent lifestyle since they had enormous estates at their disposal.
• This elite had control over the social, cultural, and religious norms of feudal society in addition to managing the religious sector of society.
• The peasants paid an unofficial tax known as the “tithe” that represented one-tenth of their produce to the church.
• The second group of devoted Christians known as monks existed among Christians in the Medieval era in addition to the Church.

Second order- The nobility

• The second tier, following the priests, was the noble class. They were in a prominent position in the government.
• In general, warriors were thought to be under this category.
• The nobles had various advantages and were free people with property rights.
• They were only required to fight for and support their master in battle. It was their one and only duty.
• They received compensation in the form of land in return for this.
• They serve the king as a vassal, which requires them to perform duties for their lord.
• They ruled as the king and were the lords of their domain.
• The peasant served as the nobility’s vassal and appeared in their court for legal proceedings.
• Armies of the Nobility were known as “feudal levies”.
• Large landowners owned manor houses, which were referred to as manorial estates.
• The manorial estates controlled the lands in the villages, where the peasants lived and worked.
• They had everything they needed and led a luxurious life.
• Another class of nobles was the knight, who received a title and a plot of land from the king.
• Knights were expert warriors who made a commitment to fight for their lord whenever necessary.

The third order: The Peasantry

• The third and lowest class in society was the peasant. They were farmers and manual laborers. They had no luxuries or proper recognition in the society.
• The men were forced to fight as foot troops when the monarch required them.
• Peasant women and children were required to work for lords.
• There are two types of peasants- the Free Peasants and the other the Unfree Peasants of Serfs.

Free peasants-

• They owned their own land and served as the lord’s tenants.
• Women and children had to work in the lords’ households for a set amount of time and the lord received all the proceeds none was given to the peasant class.
• The males had to serve in the military for at least forty days every year.
• Additionally, they had to perform community service tasks like repairing the well, creating new roads, etc.

Serfs or Unfree Peasants

• Serfs worked on the lord’s land for free and received no pay.
• The lords had complete control over the serfs, and they were not permitted to leave the estates.
• Even to marry, the surfs had to get their lord’s approval.

Summary

Based on their occupation and socioeconomic standing, European society was divided into three orders or classes during the medieval era. The clergy was the highest and most powerful order, nobility was the second most powerful order, and peasants were the third and lowest order. The clergy included priests and people involved in religious pursuits. The nobles were lords and kings who belonged to the military class. They controlled the most land. The majority of people in society were peasants, who were farmers and slave laborers who served the lords.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Who were monks?
Ans: The faithful Christians known as monks had lonely lives. They were not Church members. Monks led a simple life in contrast to clerics. They lived in monasteries or abbeys. Monks swore to spend the rest of their lives cultivating and praying in the abbeys. The abbeys were generally located far from any populated areas. In contrast to the church, it was accessible to both sexes. Monks weren’t permitted to get married. They contributed to the dissemination of the arts, and several works of writing from the late 13th and early 14th centuries describe them.

2. What was the impact of the churches on society?
Ans: The church made an effort to mold the social environment and living circumstances to the Christian way of life, in the following ways-

• Churches began commemorating Christ’s birth and the day of his resurrection.
•  New Christian holy days have taken the place of pagan holidays.
• Peasants would enjoy the fact that they didn’t have to work on Holy Day.
• People began going on pilgrimages to large churches or martyrs’ shrines.
• The custom of baptizing a newborn child became prevalent.
• The custom of holy days, when people were granted days off from labor to pray, evolved into holidays where people could relax and not go to work.

3. Who came up with the concept of social norms in society?
Ans: According to the French Bishop “Adalbero of Laon,” some people work, some people pray, and some people fight in society. The concept of three social orders was born from there, which led to the formation of The Three orders, Clergy, Nobility, and Peasantry in European society.