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संज्ञा या सर्वनाम के जिस रूप से वाक्य का सम्बन्ध किसी दूसरे शब्द के साथ जाना जाए, उसे कारक कहते हैं। कारक का सीधा सम्बन्ध क्रिया से ही होता है। किसी कार्य को करने वाला कारक यानि जो भी क्रिया को करने में मुख्य भूमिका निभाता है, वह कारक कहलाता है।

कारक को प्रकट करने के लिए संज्ञा और सर्वनाम के साथ जो चिन्ह लगाये जाते हैं, उन्हें विभक्तियाँ कहते हैं।

जैसे –पेड़ पर फल लगते हैं। इसमें ‘पर’ विभक्ति है।

कारक और उनकी विभक्तियाँ इस प्रकार है

                कारक विभक्तियाँ

                  कर्ता   ने

                   कर्म   को

                 करण   से, द्वारा

            सम्प्रदान     को, के लिये, हेतु

            अपादान     से {अलग होने के अर्थ में}

              सम्बन्ध     का, की, के, रा, री, रे

          अधिकरण     में, पर

            सम्बोधन       हे! अरे! ऐ! ओ! हाय!

1.कर्ता कारक 

संज्ञा या सर्वनाम के जिस रूप से क्रिया के करने वाले का बोध हो, उसे कर्ता कारक कहते हैं। इसका चिन्ह ’ने’ कभी कर्ता के साथ लगता है, और कभी वाक्य में नहीं होता है अर्थात लुप्त होता है। 

 उदाहरण

1. रमेश ने पुस्तक पढ़ी।

 इसमें ‘ने’कर्ता कारक की विभक्ति है।

 2.सुनील खेलता है।

 इसमें कर्ता कारक की विभक्ति लुप्त है।

2.कर्म कारक

संज्ञा या सर्वनाम के जिस रूप पर क्रिया का प्रभाव या फल पङे, उसे कर्म कारक कहते हैं। कर्म के साथ ’को’ विभक्ति आती है। इसकी यही सबसे बड़ी पहचान होती है। कभी-कभी वाक्यों में ’को’ विभक्ति का लोप भी होता है। 

उदाहरण

1.उसने सुनील को पढ़ाया ।   

इसमें ‘को’ विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह कर्म कारक है।

2.मोहन ने चोर को पकड़ा।

इसमें ने विभक्ति का प्रयोग भी है लेकिन इसमें क्रिया का प्रभाव ‘को’ विभक्ति पर है, इसलिए यह कर्म कारक है।

3.करण कारक

जिस साधन से अथवा जिसके द्वारा क्रिया पूरी की जाती है, उस संज्ञा को करण कारक कहते हैं। इसकी विभक्ति ’से’ अथवा ’द्वारा’ है।    

उदाहरण

1.रहीम गेंद से खेलता है।

इसमें ‘से’ विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह करण कारक है।

2.आदमी चोर को लाठी द्वारा मारता है।यहाँ ‘द्वारा विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह करण कारक है।

4.सम्प्रदान कारक

जिसके लिए क्रिया की जाती है, उसे सम्प्रदान कारक कहते हैं। इसमें कर्म कारक ’को’ भी प्रयुक्त होता है, किन्तु उसका अर्थ ’के लिये’ होता है। 

उदाहरण

1.सुनील रवि के लिए गेंद लाता है।

यहाँ ‘के लिए’ विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह संप्रदान कारक है।          

2.हम पढ़ने के लिए स्कूल जाते हैं। यहाँ पर ‘के लिए’ विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह संप्रदान कारक है।         

5.अपादान कारक

अपादान का अर्थ है- अलग होना। जिस संज्ञा अथवा सर्वनाम से किसी वस्तु का अलग होना मालूम चलता हो, उसे अपादान कारक कहते हैं। करण कारक की तरह अपादान कारक का चिन्ह भी ’से’ है, परन्तु करण कारक में इसका अर्थ सहायता होता है और अपादान में अलग होना होता है।

उदाहरण

1. हिमालय से गंगा निकलती है।

यहाँ पर गंगा को हिमालय से अलग करने के लिए ‘से’ विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह अपादान कारक है।             

2. वृक्ष से पत्ता गिरता है।

यहाँ पर भी पत्ते को वृक्ष से अलग करने के लिए ‘से’ विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह अपादान कारक है।

6.सम्बन्ध कारक

संज्ञा अथवा सर्वनाम के जिस रूप से एक वस्तु का सम्बन्ध दूसरी वस्तु से जाना जाए, उसे सम्बन्ध कारक कहते हैं। इसकी मुख्य पहचान है – ’का’, ’की’, के। 

उदाहरण 

1. राहुल की किताब मेज पर है।

राहुल का संबंध किताब से बताने के लिए ‘की’ विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह संबंध कारक है।

2. सुनीता का घर दूर है।

सुनीता का संबंध घर से बताने के लिए ‘का’ विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह संबंध कारक है।

7.अधिकरण कारक

संज्ञा के जिस रूप से क्रिया के आधार का बोध होता है, उसे अधिकरण कारक कहते हैं। इसकी मुख्य पहचान ’में’, ’पर’ होती है । 

 उदाहरण 

1.घर पर माँ है।

 यहाँ ‘पर’ विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह अधिकरण कारक है।         

2.घोंसले में चिङिया है।

 यहाँ पर ‘में’ विभक्ति का प्रयोग घोंसले का आधार बताने के लिए किया गया है इसलिए यह अधिकरण कारक है।

8.सम्बोधन कारक

संज्ञा या सर्वनाम के जिस रूप से किसी को पुकारने तथा सावधान करने का बोध हो, उसे सम्बोधन कारक कहते हैं। इसका सम्बन्ध न क्रिया से और न किसी दूसरे शब्द से होता है। यह वाक्य से अलग रहता है। इसका कोई कारक चिन्ह भी नहीं है।

 उदाहरण

1.खबरदार ! रीना को मत मारो।

यहाँ पर किसी को सावधान किया गया है, इसलिए यह संबोधन कारक है।

2.लड़के! जरा इधर आ।

यहाँ पर किसी को पुकारने का कार्य किया गया है, इसलिए यह संबोधन कारक है।

अधिकतर पूछें गए प्रश्न–:

1. ’मछली पानी में रहती है’ इस वाक्य में किस कारक का चिह्न प्रयुक्त हुआ है?

उत्तर : अधिकरण। यहाँ पर मछली के रहने के आधार का बोध ‘में’ विभक्ति के द्वारा किया गया है, इसलिए यह अधिकरण कारण है।

2. किस कारक में किसी भी विभक्ति का प्रयोग नहीं होता?

उत्तर: संबोधन कारक में किसी भी विभक्ति का प्रयोग नहीं होता। इसमें किसी को पुकारने या सावधान करने का कार्य किया जाता है।

3. हिंदी व्याकरण में कितने कारक होते है?

उत्तर: हिंदी व्याकरण में आठ कारक होते है।

4.अपादान कारक की पहचान क्या है?

उत्तर:अपादान का अर्थ है- अलग होना। जिस संज्ञा अथवा सर्वनाम से किसी वस्तु का अलग होना मालूम चलता हो, उसे अपादान कारक कहते हैं।

5. करण कारक में कौन सी विभक्तियों का प्रयोग किया जाता है?

उत्तर: करण कारक में ‘से’ या ‘द्वारा’ विभक्तियों का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

सर्वनाम	संज्ञा
प्रत्यय	अलंकार
वर्तनी	पद परिचय
वाक्य विचार	समास
लिंग	संधि
विराम चिन्ह	शब्द विचार
अव्यय	काल

Introduction

An allele is a variation of a certain gene. It is an alternative form of a gene. William Bateson and Edith R. Saunders  coined the word “allele“. Alleles were originally known as “allelomorphs”. These paired copies of the same gene convey information for the expression of the same characteristics, yet they have distinct effects on people within a population. Alleles are always located at the same location on a chromosome. On homologous chromosomes, alleles of a gene occupy corresponding locations. Alleles are part of DNA and hence they are made up of a deoxyribose sugar, a nitrogen base and phosphate group.

Types of alleles

There are two types of allele found, they are as follows-

Homozygous alleles- These are identical alleles on a diploid organism’s chromosome. The organism is referred to as homozygous recessive for that particular trait if both alleles are recessive (aa). In contrast, a person could be homozygous dominant, if  they have both dominant alleles.

Heterozygous allele– These refer to an organism that has two distinct alleles at a same locus on a chromosome. In this case one allele establishes dominance (known as the dominant allele) and is expressed while the other allele (known as the recessive allele) is not expressed.

Functions of  alleles

Following are the function of a allele

• The various alleles define the various “traits” of a particular character.
• The external phenotype of an organism is determined by the inherited alleles.
• The observable traits are determined by interactions between alleles.
• Alleles encode for improtant proteins, that are necessary for the survival of an organisms.
• Mutations in alleles can be fatal or can lead to conditions such as CFTR, Achondroplasia, Sickle Cell Anaemia, etc.

Difference between gene and allele

Summary 

An organism’s genetic makeup determines all of its traits, including its physical and metabolic properties. An allele is a gene’s alternate form with minute sequence variations. On homologous chromosomes, the allele(s) for a particular gene are always found at the same locus. A gene’s allelic variants enable more diverse detectable phenotypes among organisms. This leads to more genetic diversity in various species. Different hair colour, eye colour, skin pigmentations, etc seen in the population is due to the alleles for these respective traits. Genetic illnesses like Cystic fibrosis, Huntington’s disease, Sickle cell anaemia, thalassemia, etc. can be caused due to  mutations present in various alleles.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is a gene?

Ans: Genes are the functional unit of heredity that determine an organism’s unique features and are transmitted from parents to offspring or daughter cells.The term gene was coined by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1905.It encodes RNA and polypeptides that have an impact on the organism’s overall makeup.Any organism’s appearance, behaviour, and metabolism are critically impacted by gene expression.

2. What are multiple alleles?

Ans: In a group of organisms or species, there may be more than two distinct gene forms, which are referred to as multiple alleles. Although the genotype of the population’s members still only contains two alleles, each person may have a different set of alleles.

3. How many alleles per gene are there in humans?

Ans: Since humans are diploid organisms, each genetic locus contains two alleles for each gene. During  gametogenesis these alleles divides into different chromosomes. Following fertilisation, the zygote obtains two copies of every gene, one from each parent. These copies may or may not be similar.

Introduction

Hormones are chemical substances that are released by ductless glands directly into the bloodstream. Although they are immediately released into the blood, only their intended target organs are affected. There are various hormones present in the body and all of them are controlled by the hypothalamus and hence it is known as the master gland. Adrenocorticotropic hormone, or ACTH, also known as corticotropin is synthesized  and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and its targets are the adrenocortical   cells in the adrenal gland. It is responsible for the release of  glucocorticoid hormones, some sex hormones, and various other cellular pathways.

Synthesis

Synthesis of the ACTH hormone takes place in the basophilic cells of the anterior pituitary gland. It is generated from a molecule known as Pre-proopiomelanocortin or pre-POMC. This molecule signals the formation of a 241-amino-acid polypeptide POMC. This POMC undergoes various translational modifications and is ultimately cleaved by endopeptidases which yield a variety of polypeptide fragments including ACTH hormone.

Control mechanism

• The hypothalamus, the adrenal gland, and the pituitary gland are collectively known as the  hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis and are responsible for the secretion of ACTH in the body.
• Low levels of cortisol in blood– When the level of blood cortisols are lower than normal, then the hypothalamus is triggered and it secretes corticotropin releasing hormone which in turn signals the pituitary gland to release ACTH in blood.
• High levels of cortisol in blood- The elevated levels of cortisols in the blood is detected by adrenal gland receptors. This increased level of hormone inhibits the secretion of corticotropin releasing hormone, which in turn reduces the secretion of ACTH from the pituitary gland. This process is known as the negative feedback mechanism and is responsible for maintaining the blood cortisol levels in the body.

Functions

ACTH in the body has various important functions such as-

• ACTH  stimulates  the adrenal cortex for production hormones, particularly glucocorticoids.
• It helps in the uptake of lipoproteins which in turn increases the availability of cholesterol in the adrenal cortex cells.
• It helps in the regulation of metabolism, bone reabsorption, protein catabolism, hyperglycemia and lipolysis.
• It also stimulates the secretion of other hormones for the synthesis of androgens which aids in spermatogenesis.
• ACTH release activates the  adenylyl cyclase enzyme in the cell membranes which produces cAMP, this cAMP is used in various cellular pathways.

ACTH Disorders

ACTH disorders occur due the presence of tumours near the pituitary glands, malfunctioning of the adrenal gland, congenital diseases, hypopituitarism, genetic or hereditary disorders etc.

Excess of ACTH causes- 

• Obesity in the upper body. 
• Accumulation of fat near throat region
• Stretch marks, in abdomen, thigh etc.
• Men’s diminished libido and women’s irregular menstrual cycles.

Low level of ACTH cause-

• Anorexia, or a loss of appetite.
• In the affected people, low blood sugar and potassium levels may be seen.
• Females may notice less hair growth in the pubic and armpit areas.
• Different emotional reactions such as depression and psychosis are observed.

Summary

From the above article, we learn about the synthesis of ACTH, its functions, and the diseases brought on by the body’s inappropriate amounts of this hormone. The aforementioned parts teach us about the importance of the ACTH hormone. It is a crucial hormone that triggers the release of other essential adreno-cortical steroid hormones, such as cortisol, which is in charge of the body’s metabolism and particularly the body’s reaction to stress.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Define catabolism and anabolism.

Ans: The process of converting complex molecules into simpler ones is referred to as catabolism. Energy is eventually released from the process. On the other hand, anabolism entails the joining of smaller molecules to create a larger and more complicated molecule. Energy is required for this procedure.

2. Give the two main types of hormones found in the human body?

Ans: In general, there are two sorts of hormones.Peptide hormones -they are made of amino acids and are soluble in water. For eg-Insulin.Steroid hormones that are fat soluble are the second category. Examples include sex hormones.

3. What is produced by the medulla of the adrenal gland?

Ans: Adrenaline and noradrenaline, are the main hormones secreted by the medulla area of the adrenal gland,and which are involved in the body’s flight or fight response.

Introduction

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin or arginine vasopressin, is generated in the brain and stored in the posterior pituitary gland. It primarily regulates fluid output of the body by allowing the kidneys to reabsorb water during the process of  ultrafiltration of blood. It is known as a nonapeptide since it is a peptide hormone made up of nine amino acids. The hypothalamus’s osmoreceptors detect the blood’s high solute concentration (high solute is an indication of low fluid) and indicate the release of ADH hormone.

Functions

The functions of ADH hormone are as follows-

• Diuretic refers to substances that can increase the water content in the urine. ADH, an antidiuretic hormone, lowers this water content during urine production.
• ADH action allows the  reabsorption of water from the collecting tubules by increasing their permeability towards water.As a result, it only permits very little urine to leave the body.
• ADH contributes to maintaining the homeostasis of the body, necessary for healthy cellular activity.
• ADH causes blood arteries to contract, which raises blood pressure.Blood flows with higher pressure because of constriction of the lumen of the blood arteries.

Regulation

ADH is regulated by the hypothalamus, the master gland.

• The baroreceptors found in blood vessels close to the heart transmit information to the brain in cases of severe blood loss caused by blood vessel damage that results in a brief state of hypovolemia.
• During Summertime there is a high solute concentration in the blood. This occurs because of the heavy sweating and extremely high daytime temperatures.
• This situation is detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus, which alerts the brain to it to maintain a healthy cellular environment.
• For this, the brain instructs various hormones in the body which will help to prevent water loss.
• Low fluid and high solute levels cause the posterior pituitary gland to release the ADH hormone. This hormone acts on nephrons in the kidneys specifically,  the collecting ducts and thus allowing water retention. 

Disorders

Hypothermia

• It develops when the body secretes too much ADH, which causes the kidneys to retain more water while salts continue to be eliminated normally from the body. 
• This leads to a cellular condition known to have low salt concentration and high fluid content (low sodium in the bloodstream) arises which is also known as hypothermia.
• This condition  might result from a tumour of some kind that releases excess of ADH in the body.
• Drug side effects may also cause this disease to develop.

Central Diabetes insipidus-

• When ADH levels fall below the normal range, water retention is inhibited.
• This is so, because the collecting ducts become  water-impermeable and as a result, discharged urine which has a high fluid content.
• Such a condition is known as Central diabetes insipidus.
• This may occur as a result of infection, inflammation,injury ,surgery or brain trauma,  in the hypothalamus, or the posterior pituitary gland or both of them.

Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus-

• Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus develops when the kidneys become resistant to ADH, either as a result of signal mediator or nephron receptor malfunction.
• This disease occurs because even though ADH is readily available, it cannot bind to the target site and carry out its metabolic function.

Summary

Through the consumption of meals and liquids, the body receives water continuously. While some water is lost by perspiration through the skin, the majority is excreted as urine. The continuation of life processes depends on the maintenance of the water balance. This water balance in the body is maintained by ADH-Antidiuretic hormone which helps in water retention in the body and maintains the steady state of the body.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are edema and dehydration?

Edema is the condition of excessive water retention. Dehydration is excessive water loss or very little water intake. Neither of these states is an indication of a healthy person.

2. What is difference between diabetes Diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus?

Low ADH levels cause the polyuria and polydipsia condition known as diabetes insipidus. High blood glucose levels brought on by inadequate pancreatic insulin secretion are known as diabetes mellitus.

3. How can alcohol consumption affect ADH?

The secretion of ADH is inhibited by alcohol intake. This causes an increased urine production and dehydration in the body. It leads to symptom of severe headaches.

Introduction

Biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances refer to the materials that make up the products and waste we use and discard in our daily lives. Biodegradable substances are made from organic materials and have a positive impact on the environment when properly managed and disposed of. Non-biodegradable substances, on the other hand, are made from synthetic materials and do not break down in the natural environment. It is important to minimize our use of non-biodegradable substances and properly manage both biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste in order to protect the environment and promote sustainability.

Biodegradable Waste and Biodegradable Material

Biodegradable waste materials are materials made from organic matter, such as starch-based plastics or plant-based fibers, which can be broken down by natural processes into the water, carbon dioxide, and biomass. Unlike traditional plastics, which can persist in the environment for hundreds of years.

Examples of Biodegradable substances

Some common examples of biodegradable substances include:

• Food waste, such as fruit and vegetable scraps, bread, and meat
• Yard waste, such as leaves, grass clippings, and tree branches
• Paper products, such as newspaper, paper towels, and cardboard
• Textiles made from natural fibers, such as cotton or wool
• Biodegradable plastics made from renewable materials, such as corn starch or sugarcane
• Manure and sewage sludge
• Wood chips and sawdust.

Non-Biodegradable Waste and Non-Biodegradable Material

Non-biodegradable material refer to a material that does not break down into natural substances over time and persist in the environment for long periods. These materials are typically synthetic, made from petrochemicals, and do not decompose in the natural environment.

Non-biodegradable waste refers to discarded items made from non-biodegradable materials that cannot be decomposed by natural processes. Examples of non-biodegradable waste include plastic bags, polystyrene packaging, and aluminum cans. Unlike biodegradable waste, non-biodegradable waste can persist in the environment for hundreds of years and can cause environmental problems if not properly disposed of.

Examples of Non-Biodegradable substances

Some common examples of non-biodegradable substances include:

• Traditional petroleum-based plastics, such as polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP)
• Aluminum cans and foil
• Glass bottles and jars
• Metal products, such as steel cans and car parts
• Electronic waste, such as computers, phones, and televisions
• Synthetic fibers, such as nylon and polyester
• Certain types of synthetic rubber and paints
• Fire retardants and flame-retardant materials.

Effect of Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable Substances on the environment 

The effects of biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances on the environment can vary greatly.

• Biodegradable substances, such as food waste and yard waste, can have positive impacts on the environment when properly managed. For example, food waste can be composted and added to soil as a natural fertilizer, improving soil health and reducing the need for chemical fertilizers. Yard waste can also be composted, or used as mulch to retain moisture in the soil.
• On the other hand, non-biodegradable substances can have harmful impacts on the environment. When not properly disposed of, non-biodegradable waste, such as plastic bags and polystyrene packaging, can litter the environment, harm wildlife, and take hundreds of years to break down. Landfills overflowing with non-biodegradable waste can also release toxic substances into the air and water, causing further harm to the environment and human health.
• In addition, the production of non-biodegradable materials, such as petroleum-based plastics, can contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and other environmental problems associated with the extraction and processing of fossil fuels. 
• When these wastes build in the soil, they affect the pH and fertility of the soil. Non-biodegradable trash should be reused, reduced, or repurposed rather than dumped into oceans, as this constitutes a significant environmental risk.

Overall, it is important to properly manage both biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances in order to minimize their negative impacts on the environment.

Differences between biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances:

Conclusion

Biodegradable compounds are those that can be broken down or decomposed by the action of microbes or any form of life, whereas non-biodegradable substances are those that cannot be broken down into little pieces by the action of any kind of life. Organic wastes that degrade quickly are considered biodegradable wastes. Plastics and glassware are examples of non-biodegradable garbage that require thousands of years to disintegrate. All sorts of garbage affect our environment and all types of life on the planet. As a result, waste treatment is critical, which includes recycling, reusing, and decreasing.

 

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. What is the three R’s stand for?

The “Three R’s” stand for Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. They are a widely recognized hierarchy of waste management and sustainability that encourages individuals and organizations to minimize waste and promote sustainability by reducing their consumption of resources, reusing products and materials whenever possible, and recycling materials that cannot be reduced or reused.

2. What is a biodegradable polymer?

A biodegradable polymer is a type of plastic that is designed to break down and decompose into natural substances over time through the action of microbes, heat, and other environmental factors. Biodegradable polymers are typically made from renewable resources, such as plant-based materials, and are designed to be more environmentally friendly than traditional petroleum-based plastics.

3. What is biodegradable degradation?

Biodegradable degradation refers to the process of breaking down and decomposing organic material into natural substances through the action of microbes, heat, and other environmental factors. This process is a natural and essential part of the earth’s ecosystem and helps to recycle nutrients and other substances in the environment.

Introduction

Haploid and diploid indicate the set of chromosomes in a cell or organism. Haploid refers to half the number found in the typical diploid cells of the same species and are typically found in gametes (eggs or sperm) or certain single-celled organisms. They contain a single set of genetic information, which can be beneficial for processes such as reproduction and genetic variation. This genetic diversity allows the way for adaptation and evolution.

What is a haploid?

A haploid set of chromosomes refers to the complete set of chromosomes presents in a single gamete or sex cell (sperm or egg). It is a single set of chromosomes that results from the reduction division (meiosis) of a diploid cell (with two sets of chromosomes) into four haploid cells. The haploid number of chromosomes in a species is designated as “n”. 

• A common example of a haploid set of chromosomes is found in human sperm or eggs, which contain 23 chromosomes each. This results from the reduction division (meiosis) of diploid cells (which contain 46 chromosomes, or two sets of 23 chromosomes each) into haploid cells. 
• In other species, the haploid number can vary. For example, in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), the haploid number is 8, while in wheat (Triticum aestivum), it is 7.
• Since haploid cells have a single set of chromosomes, each gene has only one allele. It means that each gamete has just one allele for a given gene, and when two gametes (male and female) fuse, two alleles of the gene combine and express their phenotype based on the dominant recessive interaction.

What is diploid?

Diploid refers to a cell or organism that has two sets of chromosomes. The diploid number of chromosomes is designated as “2n” in a species, where “n” is the haploid number of chromosomes (the number present in a single set). Each chromosome is present in pairs in diploid cells, with one chromosome from each parent. A diploid set of chromosomes is the typical number found in most body cells of an organism, as opposed to the haploid set found in gametes or sex cells (sperm and egg).

Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes, which provide stability to the genetic material and ensure that each cell has a complete set of chromosomes. This stability is essential for normal cell function and proper cell division.

Role in Division of cells

• Mitosis and meiosis are cell division processes that are related to the concept of haploid and diploid cells.
• In mitosis, a single diploid cell (2n) divides into two identical diploid daughter cells, each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell (2n). This type of cell division is used for the growth and repair of tissues in multicellular organisms.
• In meiosis, a single diploid cell (2n) undergoes two rounds of division, resulting in the formation of four haploid daughter cells (n). Meiosis is involved in the creation of haploid gametes for sexual reproduction. The reduction in chromosome number from 2n to n ensures that when the gametes fuse during fertilization, the resulting zygote has the normal diploid number of chromosomes (2n).
• As a result, mitosis produces identical diploid cells, whereas meiosis produces genetically heterogeneous haploid cells. These processes are important for the maintenance of chromosome number and genetic diversity in multicellular organisms.

Difference between haploid and diploid

The main differences between the two are:

1. Chromosome number: Single set of chromosomes can be seen in a Haploid, while two sets of chromosomes are present in a diploid. The haploid number of chromosomes is designated as “n”, while the diploid number is designated as “2n”.
2. Genetic material: Haploid cells contain half the amount of genetic material as diploid cells. This results in haploid cells having a unique combination of alleles for each gene. On the other hand, diploid cells have two alleles for each gene, one from each parent.
3. Function: Haploid cells are primarily involved in sexual reproduction, as they provide genetic diversity when two haploid cells combine such as sperm and egg they form a diploid cell resulting in a zygote. Diploid cells are found in most organisms, including the human body, and provide stability to the genetic material.
4. Cell division: Haploid cells are produced by meiosis, a type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half. Diploid cells can be produced by either meiosis or mitosis, a type of cell division that results in the production of two identical daughter cells.

Conclusion

In eukaryotic species, the genetic components are enclosed within the cell nucleus and are known as chromosomes. The ploidy of an organism is defined by the number of chromosomal sets. Haploid cells are those that have a single set of chromosomes and are generated as a result of meiosis. It is widespread among gametes. Diploids have two chromosomal sets and are produced during mitotic cell division. Although haploid and diploid are distinct, each shares important characteristics.

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. What exactly do you mean by karyotype?

A karyotype is a visual representation of the complete set of chromosomes in a cell and is used to diagnose genetic disorders and chromosomal abnormalities.

2. What effect do chemical mutagens have on polyploidy?

Chemical mutagens can induce changes in the DNA of cells and can lead to polyploidy. Polyploidy, which is the presence of extra sets of chromosomes in a cell, can be caused by errors during cell division, such as failures in meiosis, as well as exposure to environmental factors like radiation and certain chemicals, including mutagens.

3. Is a brain cell haploid or diploid?

Human brain cells are somatic cells. All somatic cells in the human body are diploid, which means they have two copies of each chromosome.

Introduction

A natural resource is any naturally occurring substance that is used to sustain life and satisfy human needs. A wide range of natural resources that we use on a daily basis, are food, water, non-synthetic clothing, timber, metals, oil, coal, natural gas, sunlight, air, soil etc. One must be aware that not all of these resources are open to endless use. These resources should be used judiciously as they are for essential human growth and sustenance. Hence, natural resource management has now become the need of the hour. Natural resource management (NRM) is the collective term for a range of interdisciplinary and comprehensive approaches developed to manage and maintain the natural resources now in use, both for the benefit of the current generation and for future generations. It emphasises the management of land, water, and forest resources as well as the preservation of flora and fauna. 

Approaches to Management of Natural Resources 

The approaches must include the necessary policies, the sustainability of the rules and practises, and the need to recover resources that have already been depleted or are running out. Following are the strategies for Natural resource management:

• Top-down approach: 

• Based on the paternalistic notion that only environment specialists who have practical expertise and sound judgement should plan and implement NRM. Since local input is required for good results in natural resource management, this strategy is frequently unsuitable and unsustainable.

• Community-based approach:

• • • Aggressive farming methods and urbanisation harm people whose livelihoods depend on natural resources, particularly forests.
    • The community-based approach gives local groups a role in developing NRM strategies and conservation projects that directly impact them.
    • Multi-stakeholder partnerships, the creation of powerful local groups, the use of law enforcement to stop unauthorised land invasion, and cooperative management plans are some of the features of the community-based approach.

• Integrated approach

• • • It encompasses a variety of sectors including the public and private organizations.
    • It strives to conserve the environment, provide food security, and decrease poverty.
    • The main goal of this startegy is to make resource management sustainable for all.

• Adaptive approach

• • • This approach addresses the reasons and consequences of using NRM tactics.
    • It incorporates diverse viewpoints, experimentation with social learning, evaluation of progress, testing of policies, detecting knowledge gaps, and improved communication with related people.
    • It ultimately will lead to proper and effective management practices.

• Environmental economics approach: 

• This approach incorporates the use of management tools, such as grants, quotas, licences, rights to property, permits, etc., that are successful in the regulation, monitoring, analysis, and assessment of natural resources.

Sustainable Management

Strategies and practices that combine resource management with sustainable development constitute sustainable management of natural resources. When building long – term sustainable management practises, three factors should be taken into account they are:-

• Current and future requirements
• Ecological preservation
• Financial viability

Effective models and practises that are developed in this way not only conserve resources and maintain sustainability, but also assist in meeting the future needs of these resources.

Methods of Sustainable Management

Agriculture, mining, petroleum, and other industries are all involved in the sustainable management of natural resources.In addition to the five R’s of sustainable management, resource management  includes-

• Integrated Forest Management (IFM)
• Integrated Water Management (IWM)
• Creating sustainable agriculture methods
• Safeguarding coral reefs and coastal mangrove habitat
• Programs for recovering resources from “waste materials”
• Public education and awareness

Summary

• Natural resource management is an integrated, comprehensive strategy for promoting prudent methods for resource utilisation.
• The need for implementation NRM technique has arised due environmental pollution, urbanisation, industrialization, and overpopulation.
• The top-down strategy, community-based approach, adaptive approach, integrated approach, and environmental economics are examples of NRM approaches.
• Natural resources must be handled sustainably while taking into account current and future requirements, environmental protection, and economic viability.
• Effective management requires raising public knowledge and participation, as well as utilising adaptive management techniques.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is water harvesting?

Water harvesting is the practise of collecting surface runoff or rainwater by building catchments, prevent pollution of the collected water and storing water for later use. In various regions of India, like Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, etc., it has helped in solving issues such as water scarcity and water shortage.

There are various methods for collecting water:

• Catching runoff from rooftops
• Collection of runoff from nearby catchments
• Seasonal flood water collection
• Watershed management

2. Which sectors are affected due to delpetion natural resources?

Following sectors are affected by the delpetion natural resources-

• The agricultural and forestry sector are most severely impacted. This is because of their reliance on the availability of natural resources directly.
•  Along with ineffective animal husbandry techniques, the depletion of water and soil resources has a direct impact on agricultural output and food availability.
• The diminishing natural resources has impacted the forest communities as well as they depend on the forest produce for food, shelter and financial income.
• In addition to endangering their ability to support themselves, it has also increased the frequency of landslides and soil erosion, which has directly endangered their survival.

3. Inlist the 5 R’s of sustainable management.

The 5 Rs of sustainable management are-

• Reduce
• Reuse
• Recycle 
• Repurpose
• Refuse

 

Acclimatization: Introduction

An organism’s capacity to adapt to changes in its environment is crucial to its ability to survive. An organism adapts to its changing environment by either acclimating to it or by adapting to it. Acclimatization occurs quickly and results in temporary physiological changes that guarantee survival. In contrast, adaptation leads to the creation of new characters over time, ensuring the survival of the organism.

In species exposed to novel environmental factors such pH, salinity, light, pressure, chemicals, altitude, and temperature, a physiological process called acclimatisation occurs naturally. Acclimatization results in certain  modifications that  enable the organisms to endure a wide variety of contrasting environmental circumstances.

Acclimatization in Human

Similar to other organisms, the human body adapts to abrupt changes in the environment. This facilitated the long-term survival of the human race and the expansion of the species to areas of the world with diverse climatic conditions. As an illustration, when a person relocates to a very hot region, his body begins to reduce the amount of salt he loses through perspiration, although perspiration increases to keep him cool. In addition, our body’s capacity to acclimate is what allows us to climb tall mountains and descend deep into the ocean. Let’s go deeper into the high altitude adaptation process.

Acclimatization at Higher Altitudes

Higher altitude regions are those that are positioned above 2,400 meters above sea level. Compared to locations close to sea level, these areas have a cooler climate. With rising height, the air pressure falls. Additionally, there is less oxygen in the atmosphere. High-altitude regions include, for example, the Himalayan mountain ranges.

Mechanism of acclimatization to higher altitudes

• When exposed to shifting climatic circumstances at higher altitudes, humans can experience changes in their personalities as well as cognitive abilities. 
• The carotid bodies respond to low oxygen levels in the air that are inhaled.
• The rate and depth of breathing are increased by these arterial chemoreceptors.
• Erythropoietin is released by the kidneys in response to decreased oxygen pressure in the arteries. This encourages the bone marrow to produce red blood cells.
• People exposed to an increase in altitude experience a variety of alterations, including changes in the composition of oxidative enzymes, a reduction in the distance between capillaries, and changes in the affinity of hemoglobin towards oxygen.

Consequences to exposure to higher altitudes

• The stroke volume decreases as a result of a higher heart rate, which also reduces non-essential physiological activities like digesting.
• Respiratory alkalosis, a decrease in lactate synthesis, and an increase in 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate are a few prominent chemical alterations in the body.
•  In pregnant women, such environmental conditions can restrict intrauterine growth, reduce placental blood flow, and thereby reduce the height of such children born.
• Mountain sickness, oedema in the lungs and brain, weight gain from fluid retention, increased ventilation, sleeplessness, vomiting, dizziness, and weariness are other symptoms of high altitude.
• If people rise at a faster rate, the high altitude effects mentioned above take place. The body becomes momentarily accustomed to the changing environment if the necessary amount of time is given for it to do so.

Oxygen level at higher altitudes 

• Since oxygen is almost insoluble in water, it is mostly carried by the hemoglobin present in erythrocytes (RBCs) instead of blood plasma. 
• A maximum of four oxygen molecules can attach to one hemoglobin molecule to generate oxyhemoglobin. This reaction is reversible. 
• The partial pressure of oxygen directly affects how much oxygen binds to hemoglobin. 
• With the increase in altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen decreases. As a result less oxygen is available for use.
• Thus, hemoglobin releases more bounded oxygen to the tissues. It can so happen that all the bounded oxygen is released.
• Since the O2 pressure at higher altitudes is low, more hemoglobin is also produced by the body. This is done so that the maximum amount of oxygen can be absorbed available in the atmosphere. 
• This is the reason why people living in high-altitude regions have significantly  red-colored cheeks as compared to people living at the sea-level.

Oxygen-dissociation Curves

• A typical oxygen dissociation curve demonstrates that hemoglobin initially binds to oxygen with difficulty, and that difficulty decreases with subsequent bindings—for example, the first oxygen molecule to deoxyhemoglobin is harder to bind to, than the second one which is comparatively easier to bind, the third one is even more easier to bind to, and so on.
• The oxygen molecules’ ability to bind to hemoglobin is influenced by a number of parameters.
• Temperature, pH, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and 2,3-BPG all affect  the binding of oxygen to hemoglobin.

Difference between Acclimatization and Adaptation

Myoglobin

• Specialized molecules that bind to oxygen are found in skeletal muscles.These molecules are known as
• Myoglobin which is single polypeptide chains.
• Since they are made up of a single heme molecule, they can attach to one oxygen molecule at a time.
• The graph of it displays a logarithmic pattern as opposed to the sigmoidal curve  of hemoglobin molecules .
• When engaged in vigorous activity, myoglobin exhibits a delayed release and a strong affinity for oxygen.

Summary

The process through which an organism adapts to changes in its environment, including those related to temperature, altitude, humidity, pH, light, salinity, pressure, etc is termed  acclimatization. It is a reversible process. It is a physical change and does not change the genetic composition of an organism. One example of acclimatization in humans is seen when humans travel to a higher altitude. At higher altitudes, oxygen levels and the temperature are low. Thus various internal changes such as increased hemoglobin production, increased rate, and depth  of breathing, changes in the affinity of hahemoglobinowards oxygen, etc are observed. These changes are observed as a response to the change in the environment. It is the body’s way to acclimatize to new environmental conditions.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. How oxygen dissociation curve of a foetus is different from an adult?

Fetal hemoglobin has a slightly different composition than adult hemoglobin, which results in an increase in its affinity for oxygen molecules. In the placenta, where maternal hemoglobin is unloaded, it can load oxygen. The replacement of fetal hemoglobin with adult hemoglobin takes roughly six months after delivery.

2. Under which conditions does the oxygen dissociation curve move towards the right?

A shift towards the right side of the graph is seen under the following conditions-

• The oxygen partial pressure falls.
• Carbon dioxide’s partial pressure rises.
• Concentration of hydrogen ions rises.
• Decreases in pH or acidity.
• A rise in body temperature.
• An excess of 2,3-Diphosphoglycerateb is formed which is a byproduct of glycolysis.

3. What are the three stages of high altitude acclimatization?

The 3 stages of  high altitude acclimatization are-

• Preparation stage- In this stage the person is prepared for the going to a higher altitude. He/She is given proper training and is exposed to the cold temperatures and low oxygen environment.
• Ascent stage- This is the stage when people begin to move up the altitude, i.e .they climib the mountain.
•  Descent stage– This is the stage when people begin to come down.i.e they start climbing down the altitude and start coming to a region where temperature is high and oxygen-levels are also normal.

अलंकार दो शब्दों “अलम+कार” से मिलकर बना है, जिसका अर्थ है सजाना या आभूषण। जिस प्रकार स्त्रियाँ अपने शरीर को सजाने के लिए आभूषणों का प्रयोग करती हैं, उसी प्रकार काव्य को सजाने और उसे आकर्षित बनाने के लिए अलंकारों का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

अलंकार मुख्यत: दो प्रकार के होते हैं

1.शब्दालंकार  2. अर्थालंकार

1.शब्दालंकार

जहाँ वर्णों की पुनरावृत्ति अथवा समान शब्दों का एक से अधिक बार प्रयोग करने पर भाषा में लय उत्पन्न हो, उसे शब्दालंकार कहते है।

शब्दालंकार के तीन भेद है

1. अनुप्रास   2. यमक   3. श्लेष

1.अनुप्रास अलंकार 

अनुप्रास शब्द दो शब्दों अनु और प्रास से मिलकर बना है। जिसका अर्थ है चमत्कारित ढंग से बार-बार आवृति। इस प्रकार जहाँ पर एक ही वर्ण की बार-बार आवृति हो, वहाँ पर अनुप्रास अलंकार होता है। 

  उदाहरण–: “रघुपति राघव राजा राम”

यहाँ पर एक ही वर्ण ‘र’ की बार-बार आवृति हो रही है, इसलिए यहाँ पर अनुप्रास अलंकार है।

2) यमक अलंकार

यमक अलंकार में एक ही शब्द एक से अधिक बार प्रयोग होता है, लेकिन प्रत्येक बार उसका अर्थ अलग होता है। एक शब्द अलग अर्थ के रूप में अधिक बार प्रयोग होता है।

 उदाहरण–:“कनक कनक ते सौगुनी, मादकता अधिकाय।

वह पाए बोराय नर, वह खाए बोराय”।

इसमें यमक अलंकार है, क्योंकि यहाँ पर कनक शब्द दो बार प्रयोग किया गया है, जिसमें एक का अर्थ सोना और दूसरे का अर्थ धतूरा है।

3) श्लेष अलंकार

 श्लेष अलंकार में शब्द एक ही बार प्रयोग किया जाता है, लेकिन उसके अर्थ दो निकलते है। इसमें एक ही शब्द के अनेक अर्थ निकलते है, जिससे एक ही शब्द के द्वारा पूरे वाक्य का अर्थ निकल सकता है।

उदाहरण–: “रहिमन पानी राखिए बिन पानी सब सून पानी गए न ऊबरे मोई मानस चून।”

यहाँ पर पानी के तीन अर्थ ‘कान्ति’, ‘आत्मसम्मान’ और ‘जल’ निकलते है, इसलिए यह श्लेष अलंकार है।

2.अर्थालंकार

 जहाँ शब्द के आंतरिक अर्थ से भाषा या वाणी का सौंदर्य बढ़े अर्थात जहाँ पर किसी वाक्य का सौंदर्य उसके शब्दों से नहीं बल्कि अर्थ से निकले वहाँ पर अर्थालंकार होता है।

अर्थालंकार के पांच भेद है

1)उपमा  2)रूपक  3)उत्प्रेक्षा  4)अतिशयोक्ति  5)मानवीकरण

1)उपमा (Upma Alankar)

जहाँ दो वस्तुओं में अंतर होते हुए भी आकृति और गुण में समानता दिखाई देती है,वहाँ उपमा अलंकार होता है। उपमा अलंकार में सा, सम, सरिस, समान आदि वाचक शब्दों का प्रयोग किया जाता है। इसमें एक वस्तु की दूसरी वस्तु से तुलना की जाती है।

उदाहरण–: 1)कर कमल–सा कोमल।।

 यहाँ पर हाथों की तुलना कमल से की गई है तथा इसमें ‘सा’ वाचक शब्द का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह उपमा अलंकार है।

2)रूपक(Rupak Alankar )

 जहाँ उपमेय में उपमान का आरोप हो अर्थात जहाँ दोनों में कोई भी अभिन्नता ना हो, एक समान दिखें वहाँ पर रूपक अलंकार होता है। 

उदाहरण–: 1)मैया मैं तो चंद्र खिलौना लैहों।।

यहाँ पर खिलौने को चंद्र बता दिया गया है और खिलौने और चंद्र के बीच का अंतर खत्म कर दिया गया है, इसलिए यह रूपक अलंकार है।

3)उत्प्रेक्षा(Utpreksha Alankar)

जब उपमेय में उपमान की होने की संभावना या कल्पना की जाती है तो वहाँ उत्प्रेक्षा अलंकार होता है। इस अलंकार में मन, मानों, मनुह, जनु, जानहु, ज्यों आदि वाचक शब्दों का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

उदाहरण–:1)उसका मुख मानो चंद्र के समान है।।

यहाँ पर मुख चंद्रमा के समान होने की कल्पना की गई है तथा यहाँ पर मानो वाचक शब्द का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह उत्प्रेक्षा अलंकार है। 

4)अतिशयोक्ति (Atishyokti Alankar)

जब किसी की प्रसंशा करते समय बात को इतना बढ़ा-चढ़ा कर कहा जाए जो संभव न हो तथा किसी बात की अति की जाए वहाँ अतिशयोक्ति अलंकार होता है।

उदाहरण–:1) हनुमान की पूंछ में, लग ना पाई आग। लंका सिगरी जलि गई, गए निशाचर भाग।।

यहाँ पर बात को बढ़ा चढ़ाकर कहा गया है की हनुमान की पूँछ में आग भी नही लगी और सारी लंका जल गई और राक्षस भाग गए, इसलिए यहाँ अतिशयोक्ति अलंकार है।

5) मानवीकरण (Manvikaran Alankar)

जहाँ पर प्रकृति चीजों और जड़ वस्तुओं पर मानवीय आरोप किया जाए या वस्तुओं को मानव जैसा सजीव वर्णन कर दें, वहाँ पर मानवीकरण अलंकार होता है। 

उदाहरण  1) फूल हँसे कलियां मुस्कुराई।

यहाँ पर फूलों के हँसने और कलियों के मुस्कुराने पर मानवीय आरोप किया गया है, इसलिए यहाँ मानवीकरण अलंकार है।

अधिकतर पूछे गए प्रश्न

1.“तरनी तनुजा तट तमाल तरुवर बहु छाए” इस पंक्ति में कौन-सा अलंकार है।

उत्तर–: इस पंक्ति में अनुप्रास अलंकार है।यहाँ ‘त’ वर्ण की बार बार आवृति है, इसलिए यह अनुप्रास अलंकार है।

2. जहाँ पर प्रकृति चीजों और जड़ वस्तुओं पर मानवीय प्रभाव हो वहाँ कौन-सा अलंकार है?

उत्तर–: जहाँ पर प्रकृति चीजों और जड़ वस्तुओं पर मानवीय प्रभाव हो वहाँ मानवीकरण अलंकार होता है।

3. ‘पीपर पात सरिस मन डोला’ पंक्ति में कौन-सा अलंकार है?

उत्तर–: उपमा अलंकार। क्योंकि इसमें मन की तुलना पीपल के पत्ते से की गई है और इस वाक्य में सरिस वाचक शब्द का भी प्रयोग किया गया है।

4. यमक और श्लेष अलंकार में क्या अंतर है?

उत्तर–: यमक अलंकार में एक शब्द एक से अधिक बार प्रयोग होता है लेकिन उसका अर्थ हर बार अलग होता है। श्लेष अलंकार में शब्द एक ही बार प्रयोग होता है लेकिन उनके अर्थ अनेक निकलते है।

5. नीचे दी गई पंक्ति में कौन-सा अलंकार है? ‘सिर फट गया उसका मानों अरुण रंग का घड़ा।’

उत्तर–: इस पंक्ति में उत्प्रेक्षा अलंकार है, क्योंकि सिर फटने पर लाल रंग का घड़ा होने की कल्पना की गई है और इसमें मानों वाचक शब्द का भी प्रयोग किया है।

सर्वनाम	संज्ञा
प्रत्यय	अलंकार
वर्तनी	पद परिचय
वाक्य विचार	समास
लिंग	संधि
विराम चिन्ह	शब्द विचार
अव्यय	काल

जब दो या दो से अधिक पद अपने प्रत्ययों या विभक्तियों को छोड़कर मिलते हैं तो समास कहलाते है। साधारण शब्दों में, जब अनेक शब्द मिलकर पद बनाते हैं तथा दो या उससे अधिक शब्दों के संयोग से जब कोई नया शब्द बनता है और उसका नया अर्थ निकलता है तो उसे समास कहते है। समास के द्वारा कम शब्दों में अधिक अर्थ व्यक्त करने की कोशिश की जाती है।समास के विग्रह करने से एक नया अर्थ निकलता है।

समास के भेद 

पदों की प्रधानता को आधार मानकर समास को मुख्यत: छह भागों में विभाजित किया गया है।

1. अव्ययीभाव समास
2. तत्पुरुष समास
3. द्वंद्व समास
4. बहुब्रीहि समास
5. कर्मधारय समास
6. द्विगु समास               

1.अव्ययीभाव समास  

अव्ययीभाव समास में पहला पद प्रधान होता है, इसका पहला पद क्रिया विशेषण होता है तथा अन्य पद अव्यय का काम करते है। अव्ययीभाव समास में पहले पद की प्रधानता होती है। इसका अर्थ पहले पद पर ही आधारित होता है।

उदाहरण

 1) यथा संभव– जैसा संभव हो (इसमें पहले पद यथा को महत्व दिया गया है, इसलिए यह अव्ययीभाव समास है।) 

 2) प्रति वर्ष– प्रत्येक वर्ष ( इसमें पहले शब्द प्रति को महत्व दिया गया है, इसलिए यह अव्ययीभाव समास है।)

 

2. तत्पुरुष समास 

तत्पुरुष समास में दूसरा या अंतिम पद प्रधान होता है। इस समास के दूसरे या आखिरी पद को महत्व दिया जाता है और किसी एक विभक्ति का भी प्रयोग किया जाता है। इस समास के पदों के बीच किसी एक कारक की विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया जाता है, जिससे इनकी पहचान करना आसान होता है।तत्पुरुष समास में प्रथम विभक्ति और अंतिम विभक्ति का प्रयोग नहीं किया जाता है। इसमें को, से द्वारा,  के लिए, में, से, का, पर आदि विभक्तियों का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

उदाहरण

 1) राजपुत्र– राजा का पुत्र (इसमें दूसरा पद पुत्र को महत्व दिया गया है और ‘का’ विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया है, इसलिए यह तत्पुरुष समास है।)

2) आकाशपतित– आकाश से पतित(इसमें अंतिम पद पतित को महत्व दिया गया है और ‘से’ विभक्ति का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह तत्पुरुष समास है।)

 

3.द्वंद्व समास 

द्वंद्व समास में दोनों पद प्रधान होते हैं और दोनों पद संज्ञा या उसका समूह होता। दोनों पद ‘और’ ‘अथवा’ एवं ‘या’ बोधकों के द्वारा जुड़े होते हैं। जब उन पदों को अलग करके लिखते है तो इन योजक शब्दों का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

उदाहरण

 1) माता–पिता – माता और पिता (यहाँ पर माता–पिता ‘और’ बोधक से जुड़ें हुए हैं, इसलिए यह द्वंद्व समास है।)

 2) सीता–राम – सीता और राम (यहाँ  सीता–राम ‘और’ बोधक से जुड़ें हुए हैं, इसलिए यह द्वंद्व समास है।)

4. बहुब्रीहि समास 

बहुब्रीही समास में कोई भी पद प्रधान नहीं होता है।इसमें दोनों पद मिलकर एक नया शब्द बनाते हैं, जिसका एक नया अर्थ निकलता है। जो इस पद को परिभाषित करता है।

उदाहरण

1) नीलकंठ– नीला है कंठ जिसका अर्थात शिव ( यहाँ पर नीलकंठ का एक नया अर्थ निकाला गया है, इसलिए यह बहुब्रीही समास है)

 2) गजानन– गज के समान मुख है जिसका अर्थात गणेश (यहाँ पर गजानन का एक नया अर्थ निकाला गया है, इसलिए यहाँ बहुब्रीहि 

समास है।)

 

5. कर्मधारय समास

इस समास में दोनों पद प्रधान होते हैं। इसके पदों के बीच विशेषज्ञ- विशेषण, उपमान–उपमेय का भाव होता है। इसमें किसी एक पद की विशेषता बताई जाती है या फिर उसकी तुलना की जाती है।

उदाहरण

 1) शशिमुख– शशि के समान मुख (यहाँ  पर उपमान उपमेय का भाव है, इसलिए यह कर्मधारय समास है।)

2) पीतांबर – पीले है जो अंबर(वस्त्र)  (यहाँ पर विशेषण का भाव है, इसलिए यह कर्मधारय समास है।)

6. द्विगु समास –:

 द्विगु समास में पहला पद संख्या का बोध कराता है और दूसरा पद प्रधान होता है। संख्यावाची शब्द समूह या समाहार का बोध कराता है। इस समास के दूसरे पद को महत्व दिया जाता है।

उदाहरण

1) नवरत्न – नौ रत्नों का समूह ( यहाँ  पर पहला पद संख्यावची है और बाद में समूह का बोध हो रहा है, इसलिए यह द्विगु समास है।)

 2) चौराहा– चार राहों का समाहार (यहाँ पर पहला पद संख्यावाची और बाद में  समाहार का बोध हो रहा है, इसलिए यह द्विगु समास है।

 

अधिकतर पूछे जाने वाले प्रश्न-:

1. दिए गए शब्द में कौन का समास है?

           ‘चरणकमल’

उत्तर: चरणकमल– कमल के समान चरण है जिसके (कर्मधारय समास) इसमें चरण की विशेषता बताई गई है, इसलिए यह कर्मधारय समास है।

2. तत्पुरुष समास का उदाहरण दीजिए।

उत्तर: देशभक्ति – देश के लिए भक्ति ( तत्पुरुष समास) इसमें विग्रह करने पर ‘के लिए’ कारक का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह तत्पुरुष समास है।

3. ‘लंबोदर’ शब्द में कौन–सा समास है?

उत्तर: लंबोदर–लंबा है उदर जिसका अर्थात गणेश ( बहुब्रीही समास) इस समास में एक नया अर्थ निकलकर आया है, इसलिए यह बहुब्रीही समास है।

4. द्विगु समास की क्या पहचान होती है?

उत्तर: द्विगु समास में पहला पद सांख्यवाची शब्द होता है और अंत में किसी समूह या समाहार का बोध होता है।

5. दिए गए शब्द में समास की पहचान करें!

             ‘दिन–रात’

उत्तर: दिन–रात – दिन और रात (द्वंद्व समास) इस समास में ‘और’ योजक शब्द का प्रयोग किया गया है, इसलिए यह द्वंद्व समास है।

इन्हे भी पढ़िये

सर्वनाम	संज्ञा
प्रत्यय	अलंकार
वर्तनी	पद परिचय
वाक्य विचार	समास
लिंग	संधि
विराम चिन्ह	शब्द विचार
अव्यय	काल