Blog

Introduction 

Proteins play a crucial role in muscle movement. They form the building blocks of muscle fibers and are involved in all aspects of muscle function, including muscle contraction, regulation of muscle tone, and maintenance of muscle structure. The interaction between contractile, regulatory, and structural proteins, as well as enzymes involved in energy metabolism, is necessary for the proper functioning of muscles and the production of movement.

What are muscle proteins?

Muscles are tissues in the body that are specialized for movement and are essential for many bodily functions, including posture, locomotion, and maintaining stability. They are composed of muscle fibers, which are long, cylindrical cells that contract and relax to move. The contractile activity of muscle fibers is enabled by various muscle proteins, which work together to generate force and produce movement. 

The muscle protein can be classified into,

• Myofibrillar proteins
• Regulatory proteins 
• contractile proteins 
• Stromal proteins
• Structural proteins 

Myofibrillar proteins 

Myofibrillar proteins are a group of contractile proteins that are found within muscle fibers and are essential for muscle contraction. They are organized into repeating structural units called sarcomeres, the basic contractile muscle units.

• The most essential myofibrillar proteins are actin and myosin, which form the thin and thick filaments, respectively, within each sarcomere. 
• Actin filaments are composed of actin subunits that are organized into a double helix structure, while myosin filaments are composed of myosin protein molecules that are organized into long, rod-like structures.
• During muscle contraction, The sarcomere shortens and the muscle fiber contracts as the actin and myosin filaments slip past one another.
• This process is regulated by other myofibrillar proteins, such as troponin and tropomyosin, which control the interaction between actin and myosin and help to coordinate muscle contraction.

Contractile proteins

Contractile proteins are the proteins that are directly involved in the contraction of muscle fibers. They are essential for enabling movement, posture, and other physiological processes that require muscle contraction.

• Actin and myosin are the two most significant contractile proteins in muscles. Within muscle fibers, myosin creates thick filaments, whereas actin creates thin filaments. During muscle contraction, these filaments slide past each other, producing a shortening of the muscle fiber.
• Another important contractile protein is troponin, which is part of a complex of proteins that regulates the interaction between actin and myosin. Troponin binds to calcium ions, which are necessary for muscle contraction, and helps to control the interaction between actin and myosin.
• Tropomyosin is another protein that plays a role in muscle contraction. It runs along the actin filaments and helps regulate the interaction between actin and myosin.
• Titin is a large protein that helps maintain the structure of muscle fibers and plays a role in the elasticity of muscle.

Regulatory proteins

These proteins help in regulating the activity of other proteins in muscle fibers, including contractile and metabolic proteins. They help to coordinate muscle contraction and maintain the proper functioning of muscle fibers.

Some examples of regulatory proteins in muscle include:

• Calcium-binding proteins: Calcium ions are essential for muscle contraction, and calcium-binding proteins help to regulate the concentration of calcium ions in muscle fibers. One important calcium-binding protein is calmodulin, which helps to control the interaction between actin and myosin.
• Enzymes involved in energy metabolism: These enzymes help to regulate the production and utilization of energy in muscle fibers and include creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and others.

Structural proteins in muscle

Structural proteins are proteins that help maintain the structural integrity of muscle fibers and provide support to the muscle. They play a role in maintaining the shape and stability of muscle fibers, as well as enabling proper muscle function.

Some examples of structural proteins in muscle include:

1. Titin: Titin is a large protein that helps maintain the structural integrity of muscle fibers and plays a role in the elasticity of muscle.
2. Dystrophin: An essential component of healthy muscular function is the protein dystrophin, which aids in preserving the structural stability of muscle fibers. Mutations in the dystrophin gene are responsible for a form of muscular dystrophy called Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Stromal proteins  

Stromal proteins are proteins that are found in the extracellular matrix (ECM) of muscle fibers and play a role in maintaining the structural integrity and proper function of muscle. The ECM is a complex network of proteins and carbohydrates that provides support to the cells and tissues of the body.

Some examples of stromal proteins in muscle include:

1. Collagen: Collagen is a fibrous protein that provides structural support to muscle fibers and helps to maintain the strength and stability of muscle tissue.
2. Elastin: Elastin is a protein that gives muscle fibers elasticity, allowing them to stretch and then return to their original shape.
3. Fibronectin: Fibronectin is a protein that helps to connect muscle fibers to other tissues and provides support to the muscle.

Summary 

Muscle contraction is the process by which muscle fibers shorten, generating force and movement. Actin and myosin are the primary contractile proteins in muscle fibers. They work together to create the dense filaments that makeup muscle fibers. When muscles are contracting, the myosin filaments interact with the actin filaments and cause them to slide past each other, producing a shortening of the muscle fiber. Regulatory proteins, such as troponin and tropomyosin, help to coordinate the interaction between actin and myosin and regulate the initiation of muscle contraction. Structural proteins, such as titin, provide support to the muscle and help maintain the structural integrity of muscle fibers.

 

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. What are the 3 roles of ATP in muscle contraction?

It also serves as a reminder that ATP is necessary for the muscle cell’s ability to energize the myosin cross bridge, detach the cross bridge from the actin-binding site, and transport calcium ions back into the SR.

2. What is troponin in muscle contraction?

Troponin is the sarcomeric Ca2+ regulator for striated (skeletal and cardiac) muscle contraction (Tn). When Tn binds Ca2+ and undergoes structural changes in the actin-tropomyosin filaments, myosin ATPase activity and muscle contraction are triggered.

3. Role of Calcium ions in muscle contraction.

Calcium ions are crucial for muscle contraction because they help myosin and actin interact with one another. To promote muscular contraction, the myosin head is linked to the binding region that is exposed when the Ca2+ ions bind to the C part of the actin filament.

Introduction

Blood is a complex mixture of cells, proteins, and other molecules that play crucial roles in maintaining our health. Two of the most important components of blood are plasma and serum, which are often used interchangeably but are actually quite different. The liquid component of blood that remains after the blood cells, platelets, and other cellular components have been removed is termed as plasma. Serum on the other hand is the liquid component that remains after the blood has clotted and the clot has been removed. 

Plasma

It is a yellowish fluid that makes up about 55% of the total volume of blood. Plasma is composed of water, electrolytes, nutrients, hormones, and a variety of proteins, including albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen. These proteins are involved in a wide range of important functions, including maintaining blood pressure, transporting nutrients, and fighting infections. Some common tests that measure plasma levels include electrolyte tests, liver function tests, and blood glucose tests.

Function of Plasma

Plasma plays several important roles in the body, including:

1. Transport: Plasma is responsible for transporting nutrients, hormones, waste products, and gases throughout the body.
2. Blood clotting: It includes clotting factor in the blood clotting process, this helps to prevent excessive bleeding in the event of an injury.
3. Immune system: It contains components like antibodies and proteins which protects the body against infection and disease.
4. Regulation of pH and osmotic pressure: Plasma helps to maintain the balance of acids and bases in the body and regulate the osmotic pressure of the blood, which is important for proper function of the cells and tissues.
5. Metabolism: Plasma helps to transport glucose and other nutrients to the cells for energy production, and carries waste products away from the cells for elimination.

Serum 

The liquid component of blood that remains after the blood has clotted and the clot has been removed is termed as serum. It is a yellowish fluid similar in composition to plasma, but differ due to the lack of clotting factors such as fibrinogen. Serum is mainly composed of water, electrolytes, and a range of proteins, including albumin and globulins. It plays a key role in transporting nutrients and waste products around the body.

Function of serum

The main function of serum in blood is to provide a sample for medical testing. Unlike plasma, serum does not contain the clotting factors that are necessary for blood to clot. This makes it possible to obtain a clear, unclotted sample of blood that can be used for various laboratory tests.

The tests performed on serum can provide important information about a person’s health, such as:

1. Hormonal levels: Serum tests can measure the levels of hormones in the blood, such as testosterone, thyroid hormones, and cortisol, which can help diagnose and monitor various health conditions.
2. Enzyme levels: Serum tests can measure levels of enzymes in the blood, such as liver enzymes, which can indicate liver function and help diagnose liver disease.
3. Antibody levels: Serum tests can measure levels of antibodies in the blood, which can help diagnose and monitor infections and autoimmune diseases.
4. Nutrient levels: Serum tests can measure levels of nutrients in the blood, such as glucose, calcium, and iron, which can help diagnose and monitor various health conditions.

Difference between plasma and serum

Plasma and serum differ in their composition and how they are obtained.

1. Composition: Plasma contains all the components of blood, including clotting factors such as fibrinogen. Serum, on the other hand, is obtained by allowing the blood to clot and removing the clotted material, resulting in a liquid that does not contain clotting factors.
2. Method of Obtainment: Plasma is obtained by centrifuging whole blood to separate the cellular components from the liquid. Serum is obtained by allowing the blood to clot and then removing the clotted material, such as red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
3. Uses: Plasma is used for a variety of purposes, including transfusions, blood product production, and research. Serum is used primarily for medical testing, as it provides a clear, un clotted sample of blood that can be used to measure various substances in the blood, such as hormones, enzymes, antibodies, and nutrients.

Summary

Plasma and serum are two important components of blood that play critical roles in maintaining the health of an organism. Plasma is the yellowish fluid component of blood that makes up about 55% of its total volume. It contains water, salts, enzymes, hormones, and other dissolved substances. Serum, on the other hand, is the clear liquid that is obtained after the blood has been allowed to clot and the clotted material has been removed. It contains all the components of plasma, excluding the clotting factors. Serum is often used in medical tests to diagnose and monitor various diseases, such as liver and kidney function tests

 

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Can plasma and serum be used interchangeably?

No, plasma and serum are not interchangeable. They have different compositions and are used for different purposes.

2. Can you donate plasma and serum?

Plasma can be donated through a process called plasmapheresis, while serum is typically collected as part of a blood donation.

3. What are granulocytes?

Granulocytes are also known as leukocytes is a type of white blood cell, that is crucial for  the immune system. They are so called because they contain granules, which are small, round structures visible under a microscope, in their cytoplasm. 

Introduction 

Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) is a hormone produced by the heart that regulates blood volume and blood pressure. ANF is produced in the atria (the upper chambers) of the heart in response to increased pressure within the heart or increased blood volume.

Once released into the bloodstream, ANF works on the kidneys lead to increase in the excretion of salt and water, which reduces blood volume and blood pressure. ANF also acts on the blood vessels to cause them to relax and dilate, which further reduces blood pressure. Elevated levels of ANF are often seen in people with heart failure, indicating that the heart is struggling to pump blood effectively.

Structure of Atrial Natriuretic Factor

Atrial natriuretic factor is a type of peptide hormone that is produced and secreted by the heart. The structure of ANF consists of a linear chain of amino acids, which is folded into a specific 3-dimensional shape. ANF is synthesized as a large precursor molecule, called pro-ANF, which is then cleaved into its active form by proteolytic enzymes. ANF is secreted into the bloodstream by the heart and acts on specific receptors in the kidneys and blood vessels to produce its effects. The specific 3-dimensional structure of ANF is important for its biological activity, as it allows the hormone to bind to and activate its receptors.

Atrial Natriuretic Factor Production

Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) is produced by the heart in response to increased pressure within the heart or increased blood volume. ANF is produced and stored in specialized cells in the atria (the upper chambers) of the heart, called atrial myocytes. When pressure or volume within the heart increases, ANF is synthesized and secreted into the bloodstream.

The production of ANF is regulated by a complex interplay of hormones and signaling pathways, which includes renin-angiotensin-aldosterone , the sympathetic nervous system, and other factors. ANF production is increased in conditions such as heart failure, where the heart is struggling to pump blood effectively, and decreased in conditions such as dehydration, where blood volume is low.

Physiological effects of ANF

Atrial natriuretic factor has several important physiological effects:

1. Natriuresis: ANF acts on the kidneys to increase the excretion of salt (sodium) and water, which reduces blood volume and blood pressure.
2. Vasodilation: ANF acts on blood vessels to cause them to relax and dilate, which further reduces blood pressure.
3. Suppression of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system: ANF suppresses the production and action of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, a hormone system that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.
4. Suppression of the sympathetic nervous system: ANF suppresses the activity of the sympathetic nervous system,  thus regulating blood pressure.

Therapeutic and clinical significance of Atrial Natriuretic Factor

Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) has both therapeutic and clinical significance due to its ability to regulate blood pressure and fluid balance.

1. Therapeutic potential: ANF and its analogs have been studied as potential therapies for a variety of conditions, including heart failure, hypertension, and kidney disease. ANF therapy aims to mimic the physiological effects of the hormone and improve heart function, blood pressure, and fluid balance.
2. Clinical significance: Elevated levels of ANF in the blood are associated with heart failure, where the heart is struggling to pump blood effectively. ANF levels can be measured as a diagnostic tool for the heart failure and monitor response to treatment. ANF levels are also increased in conditions such as dehydration, where blood volume is low, and reduced in conditions such as liver cirrhosis, where fluid balance is disrupted.

Summary

When the heart experiences increased pressure or blood volume, ANF is generated in the atria of the heart. When ANF is released into the bloodstream, it influences the kidneys to enhance sodium and water excretion, which lowers blood volume and blood pressure. ANF is produced in the bloodstream by the heart and exerts its effects by interacting with certain receptors in the kidneys and blood arteries. When the heart struggles to pump blood efficiently, such as in heart failure, ANF production rises; when blood volume is low, such as in dehydration, ANF production falls. ANF’s physiological effects The hormone atrial natriuretic factor, which is produced by the heart, has several significant physiological consequences.

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. How does ANP prevent fibrosis?

ANP is thought to prevent fibrosis by several mechanisms:

1. Inhibition of fibroblast activation: ANP has been shown to inhibit the activation and proliferation of fibroblasts, the cells that produce and deposit the fibrous scar tissue in fibrosis.
2. Promotion of apoptosis: ANP has been shown to promote the apoptosis (programmed cell death) of fibroblasts, reducing the number of cells available to contribute to fibrosis.
3. Inhibition of oxidative stress: ANP has been shown to inhibit oxidative stress, a key contributor to fibrosis, by reducing the production of reactive oxygen species and promoting antioxidant defense mechanisms.

2. How does the atrial natriuretic factor is triggered?

The main mechanisms by which ANF is triggered  are:

1. ANF is triggered by atrial volume receptors expanding the atrial wall.
2. ANF is activated by an increase in sodium content.

3. What is the role of ANP in heart failure?

It regulates fluid balance and blood pressure in the body and has been shown to provide therapeutic advantages in heart failure patients. ANP levels are frequently raised in patients with heart failure as a result of the increased workload and pressure on the heart.

Introduction

• The chemical bond formation was first interpreted by the Lewis approach. However, the origin of covalent bonds and the nature of the attraction force between neighbouring atoms in molecules remain unexplained.
• As a solution, German scientists Fritz Wolfgang London and Walter Heinrich Heitler developed the valence bond hypothesis. Schrodinger’s wave equation was used to characterise the formation of a covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms by electron sharing.
• The principles of electronic configuration, electrical structure and atomic orbitals (and their overlap), and the hybridisation of most atomic orbitals are the main topics of this theory. Atomic orbitals that overlap and the electrons that are concentrated in the matching bond area create chemical bonds. 

What is Valence Bond Theory?

The valence bond theory describes the electrical structure of atoms and molecules. The concept explains how electrons are distributed among a molecule’s atomic orbitals. To better understand chemical bonding, the VBT incorporates quantum mechanical principles and explains the electrical makeup of molecules.

According to this theory, all the potential energy levels of an atom in a molecule are occupied, and all bonds are localized, atomic-scale bonds between two atoms that involve sharing an electron by both atoms. Because each atom has only one unpaired electron, their orbitals are weakly connected.

The two atomic orbitals don’t need to be the same. There can be interactions between, say, s and p orbitals. A sigma bond is formed when the orbitals of the two shared electrons intersect. However, Pi bonds are formed when the orbitals cross but remain perpendicular to one another. Since these atomic orbitals will overlap, the possibility of an electron existing in the bond position is highest. Because of the overlapping, electrons are most likely in the bond region.

Postulates of Valence Bond Theory

The main postulates of the Valence Bond Theory are outlined below:

• When two or more atoms come together, their unfilled outer electron shells overlap, creating a covalent bond.
• The orbitals of atoms must be sufficiently near together and properly oriented for overlap to occur.
• The only way for atoms to bind is through sharing electrons, which occurs when their valence orbitals overlap.
• There is an electron pair in overlapping orbitals, and their spins are antiparallel to one another.
• How tightly the orbitals overlap directly affects the quality of the established bond. Stronger covalent bonds are created when more atomic orbitals overlap. 
• When atoms combine to form a molecule, the resulting structure is identical to the original atoms.

Need for Valence Bond Theory

Combining the ideas of Lewis’s pair bonding with the Heitler-London theory, Linus Pauling proposed the valence bond theory in 1928. The concept of the valence bond was developed to account for resonance and orbital hybridisation.

Written by Pauling and published in 1931, “On the Nature of the Chemical Bond” is an in-depth analysis of valence bonds.

Lewis provides the systems to explain how molecules are arranged. However, it omitted to discuss the formation of chemical bonds. Similarly to that, the VSEPR hypothesis defines how essential molecules seem. However, its scope of use was relatively constrained. Additionally, the geometry of a complex atom was not described. To address and resolve these restrictions, scientists had to introduce the notion of valence bonding.

Modern Valence Bond Theory

• As an alternative to the valence bond idea, in which electron pairs are thought to be situated between a molecule’s two distinct atoms, covalent bonds can exist between atoms.
• Molecular orbital theory is the backbone of contemporary valence bond theory, which proposes that electron pairs are distributed around the molecule in sets of molecular orbitals.
• Predictions of magnetic and ionisation properties are simplified by molecular orbital theory, but valence bond theory provides greater nuance.
• The aromatic properties of molecules are attributed to the spin coupling between the pi orbitals, as proposed by contemporary valence bond theory.
• There is not much difference between the Dewar and Kekule arrangements from the perspective of the concept of resonance.
• According to molecular orbital theory, aromaticity is conceptualised as the delocalisation of the pi-electrons. According to molecular orbital theory, the ions participating in a chemical reaction are incorrectly predicted by the function representing the hydrogen molecule. In turn, this causes atoms to link together chemically.

Applications Of Valence Bond Theory

• VBT’s most significant use is in predicting molecular structure. VBT can be used to predict the shape and size of molecules by taking into account the distribution of electrons among atoms.
• The formation of chemical bonds can also be understood using VBT. VBT can explain the type of bond formed between two atoms by understanding the electron-sharing between the atoms. Predicting the strength of a bond and the reactivity of a molecule are two areas where this is particularly helpful.
• The physical and chemical properties of a molecule, like its melting and boiling points, can be predicted with this method.

Summary

The valence bond theory is a chemical bonding concept that describes the nature of the chemical bond between two atoms. Like molecular orbital (MO) theory, it employs quantum mechanical principles to describe bonding. According to the valence bond theory, bonds are formed when unoccupied atomic orbitals overlap. To form a bond, the two atoms use the same unpaired electron to occupy an orbital, resulting in a hybrid orbital. Both sigma and pi bonds are accounted for in the valence bond theory.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the limitations of the Valence Bond Theory?

Ans: Valence Bond Theory is limited in its ability to explain the behaviour of electrons in molecules that contain more than two atoms. It is also limited in its ability to explain the behaviour of electrons in molecules that contain multiple bonds.

2. How does the Molecular Orbital Theory vary from the Valence Bond Theory?

Ans. The Valence Bond Theory explains how atoms in a molecule share electrons to form chemical bonds. Molecular Orbital Theory is based on the idea that electrons in a molecule occupy discrete energy levels, or “orbitals,” around the nucleus.

3. To what extent does geometry factor into the theory of valence bonds? 

Ans. Quite simply said, valence bond theory relies heavily on geometric     considerations. How electron pairs are arranged around a molecule’s core atom determines the structure’s three-dimensional shape. Linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, and octahedral arrangements are all possible for the electron pairs. Chemical bond strength and reactivity are both affected by the shape of a molecule, which is determined by the arrangement of electron pairs.

Introduction

A mixture is formed by physical means constituting two or more types of components. A mixture is usually of two types: homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture. Heterogenous mixtures are non-uniform mixtures which do not have a single phase throughout.  The word “homogeneous” has roots in Latin and Greek. The words homo and gene mean “same” and “kind,” respectively. Hence, if a mixture is described as homogenous, all of the mixture’s components are the same. 

What are Homogeneous Mixtures?

Substances in a homogeneous mixture are uniformly distributed across the entire medium. To put it another way, a sample taken from any point within a homogeneous mixture will have the same composition and yield the same results.

If, for instance, a solid-liquid solution is divided in half along its volume, each half will have the same amount of liquid medium and dissolved solute. 

Some essential characteristics of a homogenous mixture are- 

• A pure substance is made primarily of one type of thing, such as sodium metal or hydrogen gas. Homogeneous mixtures and solutions are often referred to as pure materials since their constituent parts are difficult to identify. 
•  The constituents of a homogenous mixture can be split into their original entities through physical means such as evaporation, distillation, etc. 

Classification of homogeneous mixtures:

Homogenous mixtures are usually categorized based on their phase, as follows:

Liquid Homogenous mixture

A solution is a homogenous liquid mixture of two or more substances. When a solute needs to be dissolved, a solvent is used. One such example is water. A solute is primarily a component that is present in lesser quantity. An everyday example is sugar. For illustration, consider the mix of water, sugar, and flavour. 

Solid Homogenous mixture: 

A classic example of a solid homogenous mixture is an alloy. It is solid at room temperature and has the same composition throughout.  

Gaseous Homogenous mixture

A gaseous homogenous mixture has two or more two gases dispersed evenly. For example, the air is a gaseous homogenous mixture with various gases, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, etc, distributed evenly in the entire space. 

Applications

Homogeneous mixtures have various uses and can be found in many commonplace objects, ranging from man-made polymers to naturally occurring solids like stone.

• Homogeneous mixtures find widespread use in the food business. Products like salad dressings, sauces, and soups are all examples of homogeneous combinations. All of these concoctions result from blending various substances in calculated proportions to get a specific taste or feel.
• The majority of drugs, including cough syrups and eye drops, are homogeneous mixtures. These concoctions are made by combining various active components in a calculated proportion.
• The manufacturing sector also makes use of homogenous mixes. Paints, adhesives, and lubricants are a few examples of products that use homogeneous mixes. To achieve the necessary uniformity or performance, these mixtures are made by combining several elements in a calculated proportion.
• Chemical reactions and chromatography are just two examples of experiments that need uniform solutions. To provide the intended effect, various compounds are combined in a predetermined proportion to produce these mixes.

• Alloys of precious metals like gold, silver, and platinum are produced using homogeneous mixes in the jewellery industry. Many types of jewellery, from rings to necklaces, are crafted from these alloys. The uniform combination of metals results in an appearance and feel that can’t be replicated with just one metal. 
• Homogeneous mixes are utilised to produce lightweight and robust alloys for the aerospace sector. Materials from these alloys are used to fabricate parts for aeroplanes, such as landing gear and fuselage pieces. The alloy produced by the uniform combination of metals is robust and lightweight, making it a good candidate for aeroplane use.

Summary

A homogeneous mixture is a uniform mixture having a clear composition and recognizable characteristics. The components of a homogeneous mixture are invisible. An illustration of a homogeneous mixture is a salt solution dissolved in water. It is impossible to distinguish the salt from the water when it dissolves since it spreads completely throughout the water, producing the same component of the solution.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the indications that a mixture is homogeneous?

Ans. Consider the sample size of a combination to determine its nature. It is heterogeneous if there are multiple phases of matter or distinct locations in the sample. The mixture is homogeneous if its composition seems uniform no matter where you examine it.

2. How can a homogenous mixture be separated?

Ans.  Homogenous mixtures cannot be separated by physical means, such as filtration or distillation.

3. Do solutions usually include homogeneous mixtures?

Ans. Although all homogeneous mixtures are solutions, not all solutions are homogeneous mixtures. A homogeneous mixture is a solution if there is only one phase present. When a solute is fully dissolved in a solvent, no undissolved particles remain as a result. 

Introduction

Various important materials in our daily life remain in a form of a mixture. So, for proper utilization of that element, we need to separate them. Depending on the nature of the materials, they are separated using a different procedure. There are different separation techniques like hand-picking, sieving, filtration, winnowing, and threshing, etc. In the winnowing process, heavy particles are separated from the lighter ones using blowing wind. In our daily life, the mixture of wheat and husk is separated by the winnowing process. 

Define the Winnowing process

• Heavy materials are separated from lighter substances using the wind. 
• The grains of rice and wheat are separated from their husks by this method.
• The mixture of grain and husk is taken in a sieve and shovel and put down from a height to the ground level. The force of wind causes the heavier grains to settle down to form a heap while the lighter husk elements are pushed aside.

The basic principle of the winnowing process

This process works based on the differences in mass between two substances that will be separated. Lighter particles are separated from heavy particles using this method. As the weight of heavy particles is higher than the lighter particles, they gather up on the surface in the shape of a heap. And the lighter particles are pushed away by the wind. 

Techniques used in winnowing 

• Winnowing separates rice or wheat grains from the chaff and husks using strong winds. Farmers would throw rice from a height and wait for several hours for the air to blow before separating the rice grains from the chaff with the help of shovels or sieves.
• The development of a winnowing machine coincided with the globalisation of industry. Today, farmers may pedal to alter the wind speed created by wind winnowing equipment. Farmers no longer need to depend on the wind to blow. They can winnow an unlimited amount of paddy or rice in a short amount of time. Farmers can utilize them even during the rainy season as the equipment can be operated inside of a sizable confined environment. We may purchase numerous winnowing machines on the market today.
• A winnowing fan, a special-shaped basket for shaking grains, harnesses the wind to separate lighter grain particles. Modern winnowing fans can be made of many different materials, such as paper, bamboo, or cane fans that can create wind from nothing.
• Using a device like a pitchfork, a winnowing fork also employs wind to separate grain chaff. When the grains from the fork are winnowed, the chaff is blown away and the grains that fell to the ground are gathered by the farmers.

Advantages of winnowing

• Winnowing is an essential part of farming production, particularly in paddy fields.
• Husks can be fed to cattle if they separate from grains.
• The machinery used for winnowing is simple to use.
• This method is inexpensive.
• There is no requirement for fuels because they generate wind using pedal power.
• The winnowing technique is an environmentally-friendly method.  
• It facilitates getting rid of husks that are indigestible to people.

Disadvantages of winnowing

• It does not apply to mixtures with heavy particles or mixtures in which all of the components are the same size. Winnowing is thus only appropriate for mixes in which one component is lighter compared to the other.
• For removing stone particles, winnowing is not appropriate.
• Substances that are heavier than grains cannot be winnowed.
• Lighter particles are removed during the winnowing process by blowing air across them. When there is no wind on a particular day, winnowing is challenging. This is the drawback of manual winnowing.

Summary 

The method of winnowing involves using the wind to separate light and heavy materials. The mass difference between heavy and light particles is the key factor in this process. Winnowing is a procedure that facilitates removing the husk from grains like rice or wheat. It can be employed to separate the husks from millet, wheat, rice, and corn. Substances that are denser than grains cannot be winnowed.

 

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. What is sieving? Where is it used?

Ans: Use of a sieve, a tool found in flour mills and construction sites, is required for the sieving process, which involves separating smaller particles from bigger particles. By applying sieving in the mill, small stones and husks can be removed from the flour. This technique can be used to separate sand from pebbles and stones.

2. Can we consume grains directly after winnowing? 

Ans: After winnowing, we cannot eat grains straight. Because winnowed grains may still contain small stones or other particles even after the husks have already been removed. So, it is best to hand-pick these stones out of the winnowed grains.

3. Why is threshing so important before winnowing? 

Ans: Threshing is the process used to separate grains from their surrounding husks and straw. After reaping, this treatment should be carried out before the winnowing procedure. Any delay after cutting and threshing allow the grains to quickly deteriorate while the harvest is drying in the field or when it is heaped in the fields.

Introduction

Wool is a kind of fibre that is an important component in every living being’s life. It is obtained from various animals using specific extraction techniques, and it is then used for a variety of applications. Wool is that substance that gives protection to us in chilling weather conditions. It is used irrespective of country or place or type of people. Different animals contribute to making this useful fibre for us. We use special machines and procedures to extract those raw fibres and process them for daily use.

What is wool made of?

Wool is an animal fibre that is mostly composed of protein with a small number of lipids. The hairs obtained from animals like sheep, goats, yaks, rabbits, and other animals are utilised in the fabric industry for the manufacturing of wool. This contains less cellulose than other plant fibre including cotton.

Steps of making wool from sheep

The two types of fibres that are present in sheep’s hair. Those are beard hair and skin hair. Skin hair is used to make the fibre for wool. In order to raise lambs with just soft underlayers to generate such soft and fine hair, varieties of sheep with only thin under hair were specially chosen. Selective breeding is the method of picking parents to develop offspring with distinct features, such as sheep with silky hair.

Various methods are involved in the extraction to making wool 

Shearing-

• This is the preliminary stage in the processing of fibre into wool.   
• The sheep’s fleece and a thin skin layer are removed using this method.
• This treatment is only performed during the spring since sheep don’t require their outer layer of skin to stay warm.
• Shearing is performed by machines and on occasion by human hands.

Scouring-

Big containers of water are used to clean the shaved hair after the shearing process to remove oil, dust, and other impurities. Cleaning freshly shorn hair is referred to as scouring.

Sorting-

During sorting, hairs of different textures and types are separated. After this one can distinguish between low and high-quality fibres. The lower-grade fibres are used to make carpets, while the better-quality fibres are used to make garments. The fleece is sorted as per type and texture.

Dyeing-

This process includes colouring the fibres as natural fibre is usually white, black, or brown.

Rolling, combing, and straightening-

Following the colouring process, the recovered fibres are combed, rolled, and straightened into skeins.

Yaks, goats, lamb, and rabbits are just a few of the various species that can be used as the primary source of wool. These animals’ skin hairs are made up of two different types of fibres, which when combined create their fleece: 

1. The unruly and coarse hair.
2. The soft, fine, hair that is near the skin.

Other sources of wool 

• Yak: The use of yak wool is widespread in Tibet and Ladakh. They are well known for having long fur.
• Angora goats: Mountainous regions like Jammu and Kashmir are home to many angora goats. The fibre from Angora goats is angora wool, also referred to as mohair. A distinct breed of goat famous for its soft, silky under hairs is the cashmere goat. They are therefore used to weave shawls. These shawls are frequently referred to as “Pashmina shawls” in India.
• Camels: Camel’s body hair can be used to create many types of wool. Bactrian camels produce the best-quality wool. Alpacas and llamas from South America also produce wool.
• Angora rabbits: Angora wool is also known to be produced by angora rabbits and is soft, silky, and is sold at very high rates. 

Properties of wool 

Elastic- Natural flexibility of wool makes it feasible for garments to expand to accommodate your body while keeping their original shape. As a result, it is advised to exercise in fine wool clothing.

Odour resistant- Compared to synthetic textiles, wool is better at absorbing moisture vapour, which allows less perspiration to gather on your body. Merino even absorbs and locks away the smells from perspiration that are later released upon washing.

Soft- Wool fibres are soft because they can stretch significantly more than more typical, bigger wool fibres since they are so thin. Wool has a delicate, silky sensation next to your skin.

Breathable- Wool fibres can move a lot of moisture away from the skin so that it can dissipate into the atmosphere, making them breathable. 

Warm and cool- Unlike synthetic fabrics, wool is an active fibre that reacts to changes in the body’s heat, making it both warm and cool. As a result, it helps to keep you warm in the winter and cool in the summer.

Anti-wrinkle- Because each fibre is curled like a spring on a tiny level and springs back into position when bent, this material is anti-wrinkle. Because of this, wool apparel is naturally wrinkle-resistant

Summary

The body hairs (fleece) of animals such as sheep, goats, rabbits, llamas, alpacas, camels, bison, and yak are used to create wool, a type of animal fibre. The breeds of animals employed influence the grade of the wool on a worldwide scale. In order to stay warm and sheltered from the chilling weather, the most of animals that live on hilly slopes develop thick long hair surrounding their bodies. Animal fur holds a significant amount of air which is a poor conductor of heat. Thus, they continue to be heated.

In cold areas, woolen clothes keep us warm. Many different animal breeds can generate wool. The high-quality wool produced by the Merino, Rambouillet, Debouillet, and Lohi sheep breeds is well known. Angora and Cashmere goats produce the soft, wool-like Mohair and Pashmina, respectively.

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Is wool a fire-resistant material? 

Ans: Wool has a higher level of fire resistance than other fibres since it is naturally flame resistant. Wool does not melt, leak, or adhere to the body when it burns, either.

2. What type of wool is the warmest?

Ans: Angora is the wool that provides the most heat. It is 2.5 times warmer than fur from sheep and is thick and fluffy. It also has the strongest moisture-wicking properties of any natural fibre.

3. Which disease is triggered by the wool industry?

Ans: Wool apparel is frequently associated with a synthetic sickness known as anthrax. It used to be a major worry, mainly for wool sorters, but because of industrial practices and changes in exporting countries where anthrax is an endemic disease, it is now almost fully regulated in the wool textile industry.

Introduction 

We need the purest form of metalloids like silicon, and germanium for the production of semiconductors. These metalloids behave like metals as well as non-metals whenever necessary. They are extensively used all over the world in all electronic gadgets and appliances. U.S. scientist W.G.P fann invented this technology in the 1950s with a motive to purify these elements to their best. This process is also known as zone melting or travelling melting zone.  

Define zone refining 

• It is an advanced technique that combines crystallization and melting processes to isolate the cleanest crystals from contaminated components, specifically metals. The crystal is heated just enough during this process to melt any impurities, which creates a covering of molten zones that moves along the crystal’s surfaces.
• It is often used to describe the process of purifying a crystal that involves melting a small portion of the crystal. The produced molten zone is moved over the crystal.
• Impurities mixed with metals get melted at the forward border. The process leaves behind remains of the pure element that has crystallized.

Principle of zone refining 

• This method of refining is based on the idea that impure substances are more soluble when they are molten. Every time a molten metal crystallizes during the cooling phase, impurities are quickly eliminated because they do not contribute to the composition of the pure crystals.
• By passing the liquid region through a rolling heater, contaminants are removed, and the resulting re-crystallized pure metals are left behind in the form of solid metal. The zone must travel as slowly as possible throughout this progressive process to produce a highly pure version of the metal.

The Process of zone refining

• On one end of the contaminated metal pole that needs to be refined in the zone purification process, a movable radiator is installed. A portable heater in the shape of a circle is used to secure the unrefined metal rods inside a space that is filled with inert gas.
• This round heater heats the pole uniformly, producing a zone where the temperature steadily rises to the melting point in a direction perpendicular to the center of the rod. As the heater moves throughout the pole, the melted zone slides down the rod.
• Gradually warming the radiator all the impurities along with the pure metals liquefy, but molten impurities get transferred with the liquid zone whereas purified metal recrystallizes.
• Toward the completion of the cycle, solid purified metal stays on one side while contaminants build on the other. This process is repeated numerous times to get the purest form of the metal.

Application of zone refining 

• To get the purest kind of metal, the zone refining process is typically used.
• Before creating an aqueous phase, this procedure is applied to concentrate biological components that are heat-labile.
• It is used to condense any enzyme, drug, protein, or other temperature-sensitive molecule during the crystallization process.
• Zone refining is a process used to make solar cells.
• It works remarkably well in cleaning impurities from semiconductors.
• Making organic compound benchmarks for High-Performance Column Chromatography, Fluorescence Spectroscopy, or even Spectrophotometry is a breeze with it.
• This process is very helpful for all analytical procedures that require the highest degree of purity for standardization or equipment calibration.

Limitations of the zone refining process 

• Zone refining is a very costly procedure.
• Its applications are restricted to important synthetics and laboratory reagents.
• Zone refining must be utilized in conjunction with other processes in order to attain a sufficient level of purity.

Summary 

Zone refining is a process used to separate the finest crystals from impurities. In this process, melting and crystallization methods are used. It works well for getting highly pure metals. Other names for it include zone melting, zone floating, and travelling melting zone method. It is a very expensive method that occasionally requires the use of additional methods to remove impurities. With this technique, impurities in semiconductor materials like silicon, germanium, and gallium can be successfully eliminated.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Describe Vapour-Phase Refining

Ans: In the vapor phase refining process, the metal element should generate a volatile complex whenever a reagent is present. The complex must rapidly dissolve for the metal to be recovered. This causes the metal volatile complex to form, and this is the resulting complex that is broken down to produce pure metal. Nickel and titanium are such examples.

2. What is the process of distillation in the Purification of Metals?

Ans: Metals having boiling points are the only ones that can be purified using this procedure. It happens whenever a metal is heated above its boiling point, causing vapors to form. Since the vapors only contain pure metal that has condensed, the impurities are set aside before the vapors are transferred to another storage facility. For example mercury, and zinc. 

3. What is the procedure involved in the electrolytic refining of metals? 

Ans: The contaminated metal should act as the anode in electrolysis, losing ions continuously, while the pure metal acts as the cathode, receiving ions across the whole process. The metal with the smallest basicity is transferred to the anode when an electric current flows through this electrolytic mixture, whereas the metal with the maximum basicity stays in the mixture. For instance, copper and aluminium.

Introduction

The valency of an element is indicated by its maximum capacity of making covalent bonds with any other element or the same element. Carbon has tetra valency since it can form a maximum of four bonds with another C atom or with other atoms like S, H, O, Cl, N, etc. Based on this, C atoms can form several organic compounds like Methane (\(C{H_4}\)), ethane(\({C_2}{H_6}\)), etc. Moreover, carbon can create compounds with both double and triple bonds among its atoms. Carbon chains can sometimes be ring-shaped, branched, or linear.

Define tetravalency of Carbon:

• Tetra signifies “four,” but “Valency” refers to “combining ability.” When carbon has a valency of four and can establish four covalent links with another atom, it is said to be tetravalent.
• The capability of carbon to form covalent linkages with the other carbon molecules tends to be referred to as catenation
• Due to the very small size of carbon, it can undergo catenation.

Reasons behind the tetravalency of Carbon:

The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its electronic configuration is \([He]2{s^2}2{p^2}\). The four electrons in the valence cells mean that the carbon atom can no longer lose or gain four electrons since doing so would require a significant amount of energy. Thus, the four electrons of carbon are shared with other elements. Since its electron has also been shared, there appear to be four shared electrons.

As a consequence, carbon’s valency becomes four, and as an outcome, “Carbon is Tetravalent.” Electrons can neither be generated nor taken up by carbon; it could only transfer them. Its tetravalent character influences the majority of the organic compounds.

Explanation of tetravalency by ground state and excited state configuration of carbon:

tetravalency at Ground state:

The lowest energy level is called the ground state. Most of the electrons in carbon’s ground state are at their lowest available energies. Despite having four electrons, carbon can only create two bonds because its ground state only has two unpaired electrons.

Excited state: 

Carbon is in an excited singlet state whenever the whole energy of the electrons may be lowered by first transferring one electron from the 2s orbital to the 2p orbital. In its excited state, carbon possesses four unpaired electrons, which allows it to form bonds with four other atoms.

For example, one 2s and three 2p electrons combine to form \(s{p^3}\) hybridization. Methane that is \(C{H_4}\) possesses \(s{p^3}\)  hybridization of the C atom. The structure of methane is tetrahedral where C is linked with four H atoms and forms covalent bonds.

The hybridization of carbon in different compounds:

• \(s{p^3}\) hybridization: C atom forms four covalent bonds with four H atoms in\(C{H_4}\). The hybridization of C in \(C{H_4}\) is \(s{p^3}\). \(C{H_4}\) has a tetrahedral structure.
• \(s{p^2}\) hybridization: In ethylene molecules, two C atoms are joined together by one sigma bond and one pi bond. The hybridization of C in \({C_2}{H_4}\) is \(s{p^2}\).
• sp hybridization: Two sigma bonds and two pi bonds are observed in the structure of \({C_2}{H_2}\) (acetylene). Since carbon typically forms two sigma bonds, two of its valence orbitals can combine to generate two orbitals that seem to be equivalent to one another.

Summary 

We may simply conclude that carbon tends to have the closest noble gas configuration since it couples its four valence electrons with several other elements and forms four separate covalent bonds. Tetravalency is the terminology used for this. In a later experiment, carbon proves that it has tetravalency across all hydrocarbons. The following features of carbon can make it the most flexible element in the periodic table: catenation, tetravalency, and isomerism. The production of such a large number of combinations from carbon compounds can be credited to each of these packages. Because they do not form bonds, inorganic composites have a lower number than organic composites.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What other element other than carbon has tetravalency?

Ans: Si also can form four covalent bonds with other elements. That is Si is also tetravalent. But due to the larger size of Si as compared to C, Si doesn’t participate in catenation. Also, Si can’t form various compounds as C atoms can.

2. Is tetravalency possible for all semiconductors?

Ans: There is only one kind of element in it. The most abundant intrinsic semiconductor elements are silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge). Four valence electrons make them tetravalent. At the temperature of absolute zero, a covalent bond connects them to the atom.

3. Why is carbon considered to be a weak conductor of electricity?

Ans: Carbon compounds are found to contain covalent bonds. Covalent molecules do not disintegrate into ions in the aqueous phase;  hence they do not possess any free electrons. Even though there would be no charge transfer, this becomes a poor conductor of electricity.

Introduction

Ain-i-Akbari, the third volume of the Akbar Nama, includes details about the Akbari administration, including its different agencies, ranks, etc. All of the histories that were written in India during the Muslim period were mainly chronologies of the events they detailed. The common people are rarely addressed unless there are famines or other natural catastrophes with high mortality details.   The Ain-i-Akbari, however, is a work with a special identity. Along with imperial institutions, nobles, and establishment figures of the empire, this book describes people working in a variety of sectors and occupations.

Meaning of Ain-i-Akbari

The Mughal Empire’s great ruler Akbar’s constitution or government is known by the term “Ain-i-Akbari.” Written in Farsi in the sixteenth century, this work. According to the author, Abu’l-Fuzzle was one of Akbar’s royal palace’s nine jewels (also known as Navaratnas in Hindi). According to reports, he took seven years to finish the work. Numerous miniature paintings of the original text were donated by the top artists of the Mughal school of painting and masters of the royal workshops, including Basawan, whose use of portraiture in images marked a milestone in Indian art. It is assumed that the writing dates from between 1592 and 1594.

Akbar Nama and Ain-i-Akbari

Abu’l-Fuzle Three volumes of the chronicle of Akbar’s reign were written by Ibn Mubarak, one of Akbar’s best friends and a court administrator. This book’s name was Akbar Nama. Akbar’s ancestors are covered in the first book, and the events of his rule are covered in the second volume’s chronology. Volume 3 was titled Ain-i Akbari and covered the governance, domestic life, armed forces, finances, and regional distribution of Akbar’s dominion. Information about Indian traditions and society is also included in the text. The most effective aspects of Ain-i Akbari are its detailed data on a range of topics, including commodities, outputs, prices, salaries, and revenue.

Many modern historians have long thought about the significant systemic changes in Mughal rule and the changes in Akbar’s managerial and religious policies in the years leading up to his death.

Significance of Akbar Nama & Ain-i-Akbari

Ain-i-Akbari, the third book of the Akbar Nama (1556-1605 CE), was authored by Abu-l-Fazl, the royal historian of Emperor Akbar. While Akbar  Nama is a historical work, Ain-i-Akbari is a collection of rules and laws that Akbar drafted and put into effect to promote good government.  The Ain-i-Akbari law describes Akbar’s reign in depth, including the numerous divisions, their different classes, and more. All history that has been written about India during the Islamic period is mainly documented chronologically, with battles, conquests, and dynasty changes.

with the exception of famine and other severe natural disasters, the general population is rarely discussed. Ain-i-Akbari, however, is a work with a distinct spirit. Along with imperial organizations, aristocrats, and empire ancestors, this book also profiles individuals employed in a variety of sectors and occupations. Imperial Harlem, culinary and serving utensils, fragrances, creatures like horses and elephants, and the spring and autumn vegetable crops are among the subjects covered. The Muslim population as well as the local Hindu, Jain, and other groups are discussed in this work along with their social background, writing aspirations, and pursuits in law and philosophy. Chapters on famous tourists, Muslim saints, and Sufis are also included.

Another issue Abu’l-Fuzzle talks about with the throng of people is the caste system. It lists each caste’s name, title, and responsibilities. The combination of four fundamental classes yields 16 subcategories, which are discussed in the resultant text. Following that, he spoke about karma, calling it “a truly remarkable kind of knowledge system on which Hindustani academics concur without distinction.” Based on what happens in the next world, he categorises human behaviour into four groups.

Summary

Abul Fazal was one of Akbar’s court’s most successful historians, and his books “AkbarNama” and “Ain-e-Akbari” are scriptures to his comprehensive understanding and knowledge of Persian writing. The Ain-i-Akbari, also known as the “Constitution of Akbar,” is a comprehensive work that chronicles the governance of the kingdom of Akbar’s vizier Abu’l-Fazl ibn Mubarak and was composed in the 16th century. It is the third and final book of the three-volume Akbarnama, also known as the Book of Akbar, which Abul Fazl also published.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Which volume of Akbar Nama book is known as Ain-i-Akbari?

Information about Akbar’s rule can be found in Akbar Nama, volume 3. Because it correctly captures the time of Akbar’s rule, The AkbarNama is an especially valuable literary work for historians. It offered a thorough evaluation of the Mughal Kingdom in all its facets. Ain-e Akbar is basically a unique work because it departs from the previous works’ formulaic storytelling and provides an exhaustive account of Akbar’s India. The self-assured, endearing, and frequently exaggerated writing style of Akbarnama was regarded as the apex of historical literature and was copied in later years.

2. Who gained authority after Akbar’s death?

The Mughal dynasty’s most illustrious monarch, Akbar, passed away on October 29, 1605. After his demise, Nur-ud-din Salim Jahangir became the next ruler of India.

3. Who was the final ruler of the Mughals?

The last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah II, also known as Zafar, died in British imprisonment in Burma in 1862. As the last of a dynasty line that dated back to the fifteenth century, he had headed a court that was well-educated in culture in his earlier years. However, as the British East India Company expanded.