Blog

Introduction

Molar masses that are calculated to be too high or too low than the actual molar mass are deemed abnormal molar mass.  They are calculated using the colligative characteristics. Among the colloquial features are a higher osmotic pressure, a lower vapour pressure, a lower freezing point, and a higher boiling point. Van’t Hoff factor is used in such cases to find the actual molar mass. 

What is the Van’t Hoff Factor?

• Because the actual molar mass of a substance is not always equal to the sum of the atomic masses of the atoms making up the substance, a quantity called the Vant Hoff factor is employed to account for this discrepancy. This occurs because the arrangement of atoms in a substance is not constant. To make sense of this variation in setup, the Vant Hoff factor is employed.
• It is denoted by the symbol i. A material’s degree of association or dissociation in a fluid is the relevant factor. When something that isn’t electrolytic dissolves in water, the value of i will typically always equal 1. When dissolving in water, the number of ions (i) remains constant regardless of how many atoms (N) of the substance are dissolved.
• Jacobus Henricus Van’t Hoff, the first recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, is honoured with the naming of this constant. In the case of electrolytic fluids, it is important to note that the measured factor will be smaller than predicted. A greater divergence is seen at higher ion charges.

Effects of Association/Dissociation

• The combining of 2 or more substances to produce a single object is known as an association. Carboxylic acids show a high degree of association through hydrogen bonding.

• Dissociation is the process by which a substance is split up into its constituent ions. Sodium chloride breaks down into Cl- and Na+ ions when exposed to water.
• The following table summarizes the consequences of a solute’s dissociation or even association on the Van’t Hoff factor. 

Abnormal Molar Masses

An irregularity in molecular mass occurs in the following cases:

•  The dissolution of solute components into many ions increases the total particle content and hence enhances the colligative features of the mixture.
• Due to the inverse relationship between molar mass and colligative properties, we anticipate a smaller final outcome.
• Since the number of solute particles is reduced as a result of their interactions, colligative characteristics are also reduced. Readings of molar mass in this scenario will be higher than expected.

Summary

Molar mass is the overall no. of moles available in a solution following solute association or even dissociation.  Abnormal molar mass occurs when the molar mass is less than or more than the predicted value. The Van’t Hoff factor gives accurate data on how solutes affect the colligative properties of fluids. It will always be smaller than one for solutes that show an association. The factor will be greater than one for dissociating solutes. It will be one for particles that demonstrate no association or even dissociation.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the difference between the Vant Hoff factor and the activity coefficient? 

Ans. The Vant Hoff factor is a measure of the degree of dissociation of a solute in a solution. The activity coefficient is a measure of the degree of ionization of a solute in a solution.

2.Does van’t hoff factor depends on solvent?

Ans. Since colligative properties depend only on the number of solute particles, there is no affect of solvent. Hence vant hoff factor does not depend on the solvent. 

3. Does Vant hoff factor always have an integral value?

Ans. The van’t Hoff factor is a positive number, but it isn’t always an integer value. It is 1 for a solute that does not dissociate into ions, greater than 1 for most salts and acids, and less than 1 for solutes that form associations when dissolved.

Introduction

Among the several intermolecular forces that exist, Van der Waals forces are notable. Johannes Diderik van der Waals, a Dutch scientist, proposed them in 1873 and so they bear his name. When compared to other intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonding and ionic bonding, Van der Waals forces are weak. Nonetheless, they continue to play a significant role in numerous branches of chemistry and physics.

In contrast to covalent and ionic bonding, which are both based on shared electrostatic repulsion between atoms, weak interactions are facilitated by correlations between the wildly varying polarisations of neighbouring particles (a consequence of quantum dynamics).

What are Van Der Waals forces?

Van Der Waals forces refer to the attractive and repulsive interactions that act between molecules and between atoms. The polarisation variations of neighbouring particles create these bonds, setting them apart from covalent and ionic interactions.

As a result of transient dipoles formed by the unequal distribution of electrons, molecules are attracted to one another via Van der Waals forces. This may occur due to the proximity of two molecules or the presence of a persistent dipole in one of the molecules. Because of the dipoles, the molecules are drawn to each other via a van der Waals force.

Characteristics 

• Covalent bonds involve electron sharing, while ionic bonds require one or both atoms to give up an electron. They’re both attracted to each other with a force that’s orders of magnitude stronger than Van Der Waals’.
• Multiple independent interactions compose them, making them cumulative.
• These forces do not have a direction and are thus impossible to fully exhaust.
• They do not vary with variations in temperature. This is because the amplitude of these forces is greatest when the interacting molecules or atoms are in close proximity to one another, and they only act across a short distance.

Types of Van Der Waals Forces

London Dispersion Forces

When the electrons in two neighbouring atoms are in locations that cause the atoms to form temporary dipoles, an attractive attraction known as the London dispersion force is produced. An induced dipole-induced dipole attraction is another name for this force.

Dipole-Dipole interaction

Two polar molecules attract one another due to the attraction forces of their constant dipoles. These dipoles are formed because of the disparities in electronegativity between neighbouring atoms.

Hydrogen Bonds

These are unique dipole-induced dipole interactions between hydrogen atoms and highly electronegative atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen and fluorine. 

Debye forces

These forces emerge when attractive Coulomb forces between permanent dipoles are outweighed by the strength of interactions between the permanent dipoles and other atoms/molecules.

Factors affecting Van Der Waals forces

Nature of element

The nature of an element or a non-metal is determined by the strength of its Van Der Waals forces. Elements or non-metals found in a liquid or gaseous state rely on these forces, whereas some metals use cohesive forces.

Electron count in an atom/molecule

In a periodic table, the atomic radius and the number of electrons held by each nucleus both grow as one descends from group to group There are more opportunities for transient dipoles to occur when the number of electrons is high. When there are many dipoles in a solution, the Van Der Waals force between them becomes greater.

Shape of molecule

The chemical structure of a molecule—whether it is branched or unbranched—can affect the strength of intermolecular forces, which in turn affects boiling points. 

Size of an atom

Attractive bonds have different strengths depending on the sizes of the atoms involved. The intermolecular interactions between atoms strengthen as the size of an atom grows.

Shape of an atom

The strength of an atom’s intermolecular forces depends on the shape of its molecules. Thin molecules have more potential to develop temporary dipoles than short, fat ones.

Applications of Van Der Waals forces

• Van Der Waals forces aid in protein folding and further solidify the protein in its final structure.
• They also facilitate the bonding of graphenes within graphite by acting as lubricants.
• Research and development in fields like supramolecular chemistry, nanotechnology, and polymer synthesis.
• For the most part, they are responsible for keeping the inert gases in a solid or liquid form.
• Due to the attracting force exerted at the ends of their feet, geckos can quickly and easily scale smooth surfaces.
• Spiders are similar in structure.

Summary

Molecules are attracted to one another by forces known as van der Waals forces. The two most common kinds of van der Waals forces are the weak London Dispersion Interactions and the larger dipole-dipole forces. They are influenced by many different things, such as the elements themselves, the molecular and atomic structures they are made of, and the sizes and shapes of their constituent parts.

Frequently asked questions

1. How do Van de Waal forces affect the viscosity of a substance?

Ans. Van de Waal forces can increase the viscosity of a substance by increasing the attraction between molecules, which makes it more difficult for them to move past each other.

2. Write the equation of Van Der Waals forces.

Ans. (P+n2a/V2) (V-nb) ＝ nRT

The above equation demonstrates the main two kinds of properties present – the volume of both elements and the attractive forces between them.

3. What is the use of the Van Der Waals equation?

Ans. The Van Der Waals equation is helpful in calculating an actual value in the case of non-ideal gases.

Introduction 

When it comes to understanding the transport of water and nutrients in plants, the concepts of apoplast and symplast are crucial. Plants have two primary transport systems that work together to move water and nutrients from the roots to the shoots and leaves. These transport systems are called the apoplast and symplast pathways. Both apoplast and symplast are pathways for transporting substances in plants, but they differ in their structure and function.

Apoplast and Symplast

Apoplast and symplast are two different pathways that play crucial roles in plant transport and cellular communication. These pathways are responsible for the movement of water, nutrients, and signaling molecules in the plant’s body. 

Definition 

The apoplast pathway is involved in transporting water and nutrients through the non-living components of the plant, such as the cell walls. This pathway is important for the movement of water from the soil to the roots, and then up through the stem and into the leaves. Some key features of the apoplast pathway include:

• Water and nutrients move through the apoplast pathway by diffusion or by mass flow.
• The apoplast pathway does not require any metabolic energy to function.
• Substances that move through the apoplast pathway are not regulated by the plant.

The symplast pathway is involved in transporting water and other substances through the living cells of the plant, via plasmodesmata. This pathway is important for the movement of substances from cell to cell within the plant. Some key features of the symplast pathway include:

• The symplast pathway requires metabolic energy to function, as substances must pass through living cells.
• The symplast pathway is regulated by the plant, allowing for selective transport of certain substances.
• The symplast pathway is important for the movement of signaling molecules within the plant.

Function of Apoplast and Symplast

The apoplast pathway is responsible for the transport of water and solutes through the cell walls and extracellular spaces. It acts as a physical barrier that restricts the movement of some molecules, like ions and macromolecules. This pathway is important for the uptake of water and minerals from the soil, as well as for the transport of nutrients and signaling molecules in the plant’s body.

The symplast pathway is responsible for the transport of water and solutes through the cytoplasm of living cells. It allows for the direct exchange of molecules between cells, bypassing the physical barriers of cell walls and extracellular spaces. This pathway is important for the long-distance transport of water and nutrients, as well as for the coordination of developmental processes and responses to environmental cues.

Apoplast and symplast differences

Apoplast and symplast are two pathways involved in the transport of water and nutrients in plant tissues. Here are the main differences between the two:

• Apoplast: The apoplast is the network of cell walls and intercellular spaces in plant tissues. It allows for the movement of water and dissolved substances such as minerals and sugars through the cell walls and intercellular spaces. The apoplast is an extracellular pathway, meaning that the transported substances remain outside of the cells. The movement of water through the apoplast is passive and occurs by diffusion and capillary action.
• Symplast: The symplast is the network of interconnected living cells in plant tissues. It consists of the cytoplasm of the cells, which is connected by plasmodesmata (tiny channels between cells). The symplast allows for the movement of water and dissolved substances between cells, and is therefore an intracellular pathway. The movement of substances through the symplast is controlled by active transport mechanisms, such as ion pumps and membrane transporters.

Interaction between Apoplast and Symplast

The apoplast and symplast pathways are not mutually exclusive, and they work together to support the growth and development of plants. Water and nutrients can move from the soil into the root cells via the apoplast pathway, and then enter the symplast pathway for transport to other parts of the plant. The symplast pathway also allows for communication between cells, as signaling molecules can move through plasmodesmata.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the apoplast and symplast pathways are critical for the transport of water and nutrients in plants. The apoplast pathway involves movement of substances outside of the cell membrane, while the symplast pathway involves movement of substances through the cytoplasm of interconnected cells. Although they differ in structure and function, the apoplast and symplast pathways work together to support the growth and development of plants. Understanding the differences between apoplast and symplast can provide valuable insights into plant physiology and help in optimizing plant growth and development.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the role of the symplast pathway in plants?

The symplast pathway is important for the movement of water and other substances through the living cells of the plant, via plasmodesmata.

2. Is apoplast active or passive absorption?

The apoplast is the passive absorption that occurs via the root’s apoplast, which includes the cell wall and intercellular gaps.

3. What is the importance of the Casparian strip?

The Casparian strip is a band of specialized cells in the roots of plants that encircle the endodermis, which is the innermost layer of cells in the root cortex. It is made up of a waterproof substance called suberin, which prevents water and solutes from moving freely between cells and forces them to pass through the selectively permeable plasma membrane of endodermal cells. The importance of the Casparian strip lies in its role in regulating the movement of water and nutrients from the soil into the plant.

Introduction

The muscular system is an organ system in the body that is responsible for generating force and movement. It includes all the muscles in the body, as well as their associated tendons, which connect muscles to bones, and ligaments, which connect bones to other bones. The muscular system works together with other systems in the body, such as the nervous system and skeletal system, to coordinate movement and maintain posture. The muscular system is important for a variety of bodily functions, including movement, posture, and heat generation. 

Types of Muscular system

There are three types of muscles in the human body:

1. Skeletal muscles
2. Smooth muscles
3. Cardiac muscles

The skeletal muscle system

The skeletal muscle system is responsible for generating movement and providing support for the body. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons and are under voluntary control, meaning that they can be consciously controlled to move. Here are some key features of the skeletal muscle system:

1. Structure: Skeletal muscles are composed of bundles of muscle fibers that are surrounded by connective tissue. The muscle fibers are made up of myofibrils, which contain actin and myosin filaments that interact to generate force and movement.
2. Function: Skeletal muscles work together with the nervous system to control movement and maintain posture. When a muscle contracts, it generates a force that is transmitted through the tendons to the bones, causing movement. Skeletal muscles can also work in opposition to one another, such as the biceps and triceps muscles in the arm, to produce more complex movements.
3. Types of contractions: Skeletal muscles can produce two types of contractions: isotonic and isometric. Isotonic contractions involve movement, such as lifting a weight, while isometric contractions involve no movement but generate tension, such as holding a weight steady.
4. Adaptation: Skeletal muscles can adapt and change in response to exercise and activity. Regular exercise can increase muscle size and strength, while disuse or injury can lead to muscle atrophy and weakness.

The cardiac muscle system

The cardiac muscle system is the type of muscle that makes up the heart. Unlike skeletal muscles, which are under voluntary control, and smooth muscles, which are not under voluntary control, cardiac muscles are involuntarily controlled and rhythmically contract to pump blood throughout the body. Here are some key features of the cardiac muscle system:

1. Structure: Cardiac muscle cells, or cardiomyocytes, are elongated, branched cells that are connected by intercalated discs. These discs contain gap junctions, which allow for the electrical and chemical communication necessary for coordinated contraction of the heart.
2. Function: The main function of the cardiac muscle system is to pump blood throughout the body. The heart has four chambers, and each chamber is lined with cardiac muscle that contracts in a coordinated way to ensure that blood is pumped efficiently.
3. Electrical control: The electrical signals that control the contraction of the cardiac muscle system originate in the sinoatrial node, which is located in the right atrium of the heart. These signals then spread through the heart’s conduction system, which includes the atrioventricular node and the bundle of His, to ensure that the heart contracts in a coordinated and efficient manner.
4. Adaptation: The cardiac muscle system can adapt to changes in workload, such as during exercise or pregnancy, to increase the strength and efficiency of the heart’s contractions.

The visceral muscle system

The visceral muscle system is responsible for the movement of internal organs and structures, such as the digestive tract, blood vessels, and respiratory tract. It is also known as a smooth muscle because of its appearance under the microscope. Here are some key features of the visceral muscle system:

1. Structure: Visceral muscle cells, or smooth muscle cells, are elongated and tapered, with a single nucleus. Unlike skeletal muscles, they are not striated, or striped, and do not have the distinct banding pattern of skeletal muscles.
2. Function: The main function of the visceral muscle system is to contract and relax to move substances through the body. For example, in the digestive system, visceral muscle contracts to move food through the esophagus and intestines, while in the respiratory system, it contracts to control the diameter of the bronchioles, which affects the flow of air into and out of the lungs.
3. Involuntary control: Like the cardiac muscle system, the visceral muscle system is under involuntary control, meaning that it is not directly controlled by conscious thought or action.
4. Adaptation: The visceral muscle system can adapt to changes in workload and demand, such as during pregnancy or in response to disease or injury.

Functions of the muscle system

some of the key functions of the muscle system:

1. Movement: Muscles work together with bones, joints, and the nervous system to allow for movement of the body and its parts. The skeletal muscle system is primarily responsible for voluntary movements, such as walking and running, while the cardiac and smooth muscle systems work involuntarily to control the heart and internal organs.
2. Posture and Stability: Muscles work to maintain posture and stability of the body, helping to keep the body upright and balanced.
3. Heat generation: Muscle activity generates heat, which helps to regulate body temperature.
4. Protection: Muscles can also protect internal organs, such as the abdominal muscles that protect the digestive organs.
5. Circulation: The cardiac muscle system is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body, while the smooth muscle in blood vessels helps to regulate blood flow and blood pressure.
6. Adaptation: Muscles can adapt to changes in workload, such as during exercise, and can increase in size and strength to meet demand. However, disuse or injury can lead to muscle atrophy and weakness.

Summary

Among other crucial biological processes, muscle contraction aids in posture, joint stability, and heat production. Muscles must contract to sustain positions like standing and sitting. In the human body, there are three different kinds of muscles: Skeletal muscles: These muscles supply the force for movement by being linked to bones.

The muscles that line the insides of internal organs like the stomach and intestines are known as smooth muscles. Cardiac muscles: The heart is made up of these muscles. Additionally, they contract rhythmically and without intentional effort to pump blood throughout the body.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Describe the purpose of muscle cells.

Muscle cells, also known as fibers, are long, thin cells that are designed specifically to contract. They have protein filaments in them, which use ATP energy to glide over one another. The length of the muscle fibers is reduced or tension is increased as a result of the sliding filaments, which results in contractions. Most bodily motions, both inside and outside, are the result of muscle contractions.

2. Give definitions of muscular atrophy and hypertrophy.

Muscle hypertrophy is an increase in the size of a muscle. While muscle atrophy is a decrease in the size of a muscle.

3. Name the two bodily systems that collaborate with the muscle system to provide movement.

The two bodily systems that collaborate with the muscle system are the skeletal system and the nervous system.

Introduction 

Muscular dystrophy is a type of debilitating genetic condition that affects millions of people worldwide. It causes progressive weakness and degeneration of skeletal muscles, leading to disability and, in some cases, premature death this includes many disorders. This condition can occur at any age, but it usually manifests in childhood. The severity of the symptoms can vary widely, depending on the type of muscular dystrophy and the age at which it develops. The main cause of muscle weakness and damage due to shortfall or absence of protein dystrophin. This dystrophin is essential in different muscle functions.

Symptoms of Muscular Dystrophy

Common symptoms include:

1. Progressive muscle weakness and degeneration
2. Difficulty in walking and running
3. Frequent falls
4. Trouble standing up from a sitting position
5. Difficulty in breathing or swallowing
6. Scoliosis
7. Muscle wasting
8. Abnormal gait
9. Enlarged calves

Types of Muscular Dystrophy 

Some of the most common types include:

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD)

One of the most frequent muscular dystrophies is Duchenne muscular dystrophy. It primarily affects boys as opposed to girls. The affected age group ranges from 2 to 5 years. The injured toddler has difficulty walking, running, and jumping. When the condition progresses, it may also impact the lungs and heart.

Becker Muscular Dystrophy (BMD)

It is the most frequent kind of muscular dystrophy after Duchenne muscular dystrophy. BMD is most frequent in adolescents, but it can occur at any age between 5 and 60 years. Men are more likely than women to be affected by Becker muscular dystrophy. This condition mostly affects the thigh, shoulder, and hip muscles, although it can also damage the heart.

Limb-Girdle Muscular Dystrophy (LGMD)

It affects all age groups, and people. The hip and shoulder muscles are affected by this disease.

Myotonic dystrophy

Individuals suffering from myotonic dystrophy are finding it hard to relax their muscles. As the diseases progress, it affects the heart and lungs. This disease occurs in adults of  European descent.

Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy (FSHD)

This kind of muscular dystrophy occurs before the age of twenty. Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy primarily affects the upper arm, shoulder blade, and face muscles.

Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy (OPMD) 

It mainly affected the throat and ocular muscles. As a result, a person experiences dysphagia (difficulties swallowing) and ptosis (drooping of eyelids).

Emery Dreiffus muscular dystrophy (EDMD)

Emery Dreiffus muscular dystrophy is primarily a childhood disease. Within the first ten years of life, symptoms such as weak shoulder, upper arm, and calf muscles occur. This condition also has an impact on the heart.

Muscular dystrophy causes

Muscular dystrophy occurs due to  genetic alterations that interfere with the generation of proteins required for muscle growth and maintenance. These mutations can be inherited or occur naturally.

Treatment

Treatments can help to improve the quality of life. These treatments include:

1. Physical therapy to maintain muscle strength and range of motion
2. Occupational therapy to maintain independence in daily activities
3. Medications to manage symptoms such as pain, inflammation, and breathing difficulties
4. Surgery to correct complications such as scoliosis
5. Assistive devices such as braces, walkers, and wheelchairs to improve mobility
6. Gene therapy, which is an experimental treatment that aims to correct the genetic mutations that cause muscular dystrophy

Conclusion

Muscular dystrophy is characterized by muscular degeneration and weakness. The primary cause of muscular weakening and injury is a lack or absence of the protein dystrophin. As a result, the participants experienced difficulties waking up, swallowing, muscle coordination, and so on. Muscular dystrophy is a rare illness that typically runs in families. A child with muscular dropsy may inherit from his or her parents mutated genes that cause muscular dystrophy. Adult carriers can sometimes convey the suppressed genes of muscular dropsy to their progeny.

 

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Can muscular dystrophy be prevented?

There is no known way to prevent muscular dystrophy, as it is a genetic condition.

2. How muscular dystrophy can be diagnosed? 

Muscular dystrophy can be diagnosed through a combination of medical and genetic tests. The process usually involves the following steps:

1. Physical examination
2. Family history
3. Blood tests
4. Electromyogram (EMG)
5. Muscle biopsy
6. Genetic testing

3. Does aging make muscular dystrophy worse?

Since MD is progressive, difficulties deteriorate over time. Muscle weakness across the body can cause heart and respiratory issues in DMD children and adolescents.

Introduction

Tissues in the body that produce movement and maintain posture are muscles. Muscle fibers are specialized cells that contract and relax to move, and make up the body structure. Muscles are made up of protein fibers and are highly organized structures. The protein fibers are organized into myofibrils, which contain contractile proteins, such as actin and myosin. When an action potential reaches the muscle fiber, it triggers the interaction between actin and myosin, leading to muscle contraction and movement.

There are on the basis of function divided into three main types in the human body: 

1. Skeletal muscle 
2. Smooth muscle
3. Cardiac muscle

Skeletal muscle

• Involuntary movement is controlled by skeletal muscle, a type of muscle that is linked to bones. It is under conscious control and can be contracted or relaxed intentionally. Skeletal muscles contract and relax in pairs to move the body; one muscle contracts to move in one direction while the other relaxes to move in the opposite way.
• Skeletal muscle fibers are long, cylindrical cells that are packed with protein filaments, including actin and myosin, which are responsible for muscle contraction. The muscle fibers are organized into fascicles, which are surrounded by connective tissue, including tendons and fascia.
• When nerve impulses reach skeletal muscle fibers, they send signals that cause the release of an enzyme called acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction. This substance causes movement by telling the muscle fibers to contract. The strength of the muscle contraction can be controlled by the amount of acetylcholine released and the frequency of nerve impulses.

Smooth muscle

• The walls of internal organs like the esophagus, stomach, intestines, and bladder contain smooth muscle, a type of muscle. Smooth muscle does not require conscious control to contract; rather, it does so naturally in response to stimuli.
• They are shorter and thicker than skeletal muscle fibers, and they lack the well-defined structure of skeletal muscle. They are arranged in sheets or layers in the walls of internal organs and are responsible for controlling the movements of these organs.
• The contraction of smooth muscle is triggered by nerve impulses, hormones, or other chemical signals. Unlike skeletal muscle, the contraction of smooth muscle is slow and sustained, allowing it to maintain pressure or propulsion over a long period.
• Smooth muscle plays a critical role in many of the body’s functions, including digestion, urination, and reproduction. In the digestive system, smooth muscle contractions move food through the esophagus and intestines, while in the urinary system, smooth muscle contractions control the flow of urine.

The Cardiac muscles

• The heart constitutes cardiac muscle. It is in charge of moving blood around the body, and it has a unique structure and function compared to skeletal and smooth muscle.
• Cardiac muscle fibers are similar to skeletal muscle fibers in that they are striated, meaning they have alternating light and dark bands. However, unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle fibers are joined together by intercalated discs, which contain specialized proteins that allow for the rapid transfer of electrical signals from one muscle cell to the next.
• These rapid electrical signals allow the heart to contract in a coordinated manner, producing a strong, synchronized beat. The contraction of cardiac muscle is controlled by the (SA) node, acting as the heart’s natural pacemaker, generating regular electrical impulses that spread throughout the heart, triggering contraction.
• Cardiac muscle has a unique metabolism, relying primarily on the oxidation of fatty acids for energy. This high-energy metabolism allows the heart to contract continuously and efficiently, pumping blood throughout the body.

Functions of muscles 

Muscles play a critical role in the human body, serving many different functions. Some of the main functions of muscles include:

1. Movement: Muscles are responsible for moving by contracting and relaxing. The contraction of muscles causes bones to move, resulting in a wide range of movements, including walking, running, jumping, and lifting.
2. Support: Muscles provide support for the skeleton and help maintain posture. By contracting and relaxing in response to changes in body position, muscles keep the body upright and stable.
3. Heat Generation: Contracting muscles generate heat, which helps maintain body temperature. During intense exercise, muscle contractions can generate significant amounts of heat, helping to raise the body’s temperature.
4. Respiration: To regulate the movement of air into and out of the lungs, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles must contract and relax to breathe.
5. Digestion: In order to convey food through the esophagus and intestines and aid in the breakdown of food and the absorption of nutrients, smooth muscle in the walls of the digestive system contracts.
6. Urination and Defecation: Smooth muscle in the urinary and digestive systems contracts to control the flow of urine and feces.
7. Reproduction: Smooth muscle in the reproductive system contracts to move sperm and transport the fetus during pregnancy.
8. Circulation: Cardiac muscle contracts to pump blood through the body, providing oxygen and nutrients to all the cells and tissues.

Conclusion

The elastic tissues are made up of thousands of muscle fibers. There are more than 600 muscles in the human body. The skeletal system, smooth muscle, and heart muscles are the three main categories of muscles. While cardiac muscle pumps blood throughout the body, smooth muscle regulates the movements of internal organs and skeletal muscle is in charge of voluntary movement.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are Striated muscles?

Striated muscles, also known as skeletal muscles, are a type of muscle found in the human body. They are called “striated” because they have a distinctive striped or banded appearance, visible under a microscope.

2. Give three features of cardiac muscles.

Cardiac muscles have the following characteristics: 

(1) They are cylindrical, branching, and uninucleated; 

(2) They are made of striated muscle fibers.

(3) We are unable to regulate our involuntary muscles.

3. What is myoglobin?

A protein called myoglobin is present in both cardiac and skeletal muscles. It functions as an oxygen reservoir and gives the muscles oxygen.

Introduction

The renowned poem “Fire and Ice,” written by American poet Robert Lee Frost, depicts human passion. The poet equates the destructive forces of fire and ice, suggesting that these two elements may be responsible for the end of the planet on occasion. The poem is relatively straightforward, but its meaning runs deep.

The poet’s skill makes the reader question the poem’s more profound meaning. The poet suggests that desire and hate, represented by fire and ice, may one day lead to the world’s end. Despite initial satisfaction, the yearning for more is ingrained in the human condition. And the same holds for hatred. The poet employs a symbolic reading of these two elements to demonstrate how specific actions can bring about the world’s end.

Summary of the poem 

Robert Frost’s “Fire and Ice” is a timely poem with profound relevance in today’s society. The poem opens belligerently as if the world’s end will come about due to fire or ice.

Fire and ice

In this metaphor, fire represents desire and is seen as the first possible path to destruction. The speaker knows that desire can cause a lot of damage, so they warn against it indirectly. So, humanity might destroy the planet out of sheer enthusiasm, fury, violence, avarice, and bloodlust.

This passage from the poem, “But if it had to perish twice,” gives us an unambiguous impression that the devastation might occur twice. The poet chooses ice as his instrument of self-destruction this time.

In the same way, fire can travel quickly through a community, and so can hate, which is a frigid emotion. Ice represents the cold, complex, and unyielding side of human nature.

The end of the world can be brought about by the self-destruction of humanity when either of these extreme emotions, fire or ice, is allowed to take over.

We learn from the poem that we need to reign in our feelings. When people are consumed by their desires and hatred, they are unable to consider the feelings of others.

For a peaceful and joyful world, it is the responsibility of every person to master their feelings and avoid using them as harmful tools. This factor can make living difficult and contribute to the global disorder we see today.

About the poet

Robert Lee Frost was an American poet who wrote about regular people in ordinary situations.

Some of Robert Frost’s most well-known works include: “The Gift Outright,” “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening,” “Birches,” “Mending Wall,” “The Road Not Taken,” and “Nothing Gold Can Stay.”

Robert Frost

Conclusion

The poem “Fire and Ice” by Robert Frost speaks to our current global climate. The poet claims that the downfall of the planet may be attributed to two emotions: want and hate. The poem likens these two extremes of human feeling to fire and ice, each of which can be used destructively if not managed.

Thinking About the Poem – Textbook Question Answer

1. Several scenarios for the “end of the world” have been proposed. When do you anticipate the end of the world to place, if at all? Have you ever imagine what would happen if the sun either grew so cold that it froze solid or so hot that it exploded?

Ans:I think it will fade out at some point. No one can predict how or when that day will come. To be honest, I have given it some consideration. A blazing sun will have worldwide repercussions and might even trigger global warming. In the event that the temperature fell, all life would perish. But if the sun ever got hot or cooled down, the earth would be in shambles.

2. For Frost, what do “fire” and “ice” stand for ? Here are some ideas: Greed, avarice, cruelty, list, conflict, fury, intolerance, rigidity, insensitivity, coldness, indifference, hatred. 

Ans: Frost equates them to very distinct concepts. Here are several examples: As a metaphor, fire represents greed, ardour, hostility, and fury. A representation of anger, hardness, intolerance, rigidity, and insensitivity, “ice” can take in many forms.

3. What is the rhyme scheme of the poem ? How does it help in bringing out the contrasting ideas in the poem ?

Ans: The rhyme scheme of the poem is : a, b, aa ; b, c, b, c, b.

By dividing them, it aids in highlighting the opposing ideas. “Fire and Ice” are represented by various notions. In both stanzas, they are given a different rhyme system.

Fire and Ice Class 10 Extra Questions

1. How does the speaker use figurative language to emphasize their point?

Ans: To put it simply, figurative language is a mode of expression that avoids the literal interpretation of words. Figurative language, most often found in the use of parallels and exaggerations, is employed to add artistic flair to a piece of writing or speech, or to simplify a complex concept.

2. What is the significance of the title “Fire and Ice”?

Ans: Fire in this poem represents desire, while ice represents hatred. There is indeed a belief in the Bible that the world will end in fire, but there is also a belief, written by scientists, that the world will end in ice, due to hate. 

3. “I’ve experienced desire/I hold with those who favor fire”, the poet writes. Why does he say that?

Ans: The poet is aware of the fervour of desires and passions in love. He is well aware  that our unbridled passions, rage, and desires eventually lead to our demise. He also agrees with others who think that the real reason for the end of the world is “fire,” which is a metaphor for unrestrained passions and wants.

Introduction

Multiplication is one of the basic mathematical operations used in algebraic expressions. We can classify algebraic expressions according to the number of terms they contain, such as monomial, binomial, trinomial, quadrinomial, or polynomial. A monomial expression is a one-term algebraic expression that contains a variable and its coefficients. A monomial multiplied by a monomial: When we multiply a monomial by a monomial, the resulting product will also be a monomial. For example, x, y, 2x, 2y, x2, y2, etc. are all monomials. Monomials cannot have negative exponents.

Now, if we multiply the monomial by the monomial, the result is the monomial. The coefficients of the monomial are multiplied, and then the variables are multiplied. For example, the product of two monomials such as 2x and 2y equals 4xy. If two monomials have the same variable and the same exponent, then we need to use the law of exponentials.

Monomial

Monomials are a type of polynomials with only one term. Monomials algebraic expressions are a type of expression that have only a single term, but can also have multiple variables and higher degrees. For example, \(9{x^3}yz\) is the monomial, where 9 is the coefficient, x, y, z are the variables, and 3 is the degree of the monomial. Similar to polynomials, we can perform different operations on monomials, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Monomial example

Let’s consider some variables and  monomial examples:

\(p\) – a variable with a degree of one.

\(5{p^2}\) – The factor is 5 and the degree is 2.

\({p^3}q\) – has two variables (p and q) with degree \(4{\rm{ }}(i.e.,{\rm{ }}3 + 1).\)

\( – 6ty{\rm{ }}–{\rm{ }}t\) and \(y\) are two variables with a coefficient of\( – 6\) .

Let’s consider \({x^3} + 3{x^2} + 4x + 12\) as a polynomial, where \({x^3},{\rm{ }}3{x^2},{\rm{ }}4x\) and 12 are called monomials.

Parts of a Monomial expression

These are the different parts present in a monomial expression are:

• Variable: The letter that appears in the monomial expression.
• Coefficient: The number to multiply by the variable in the expression.
• Degrees: The sum of the exponents present in the expression.
• literal part: the letters that appear with the exponent value in the expression.

Multiplying Monomials

Monomial multiplication is a method of multiplying two or more monomials at a time. Multiplying a monomial by another monomial yields a monomial as the product. Depending on the type of polynomial we use, there are different ways of multiplying.

There are specific multiplication rules for different types of monomials. The constant factor is multiplied by the constant factor, and the variable is multiplied by the variable.

Multiplying a Constant Monomial With a Variable Monomial

Let us consider two monomials \(7\) and \(6y\) . In this case, \(7\) is a constant monomial, and \(6y\)  is a variable monomial. We multiply the coefficients of the constant monomial with the variable monomial. It gives \(7 \times 6 = 42\) . After that, we write the variable \(\left( y \right)\) after \(42\)

Hence, the answer is
\(7 \times 6y = 42y\) .

Multiplying Two Monomials With Different Variables

Consider two monomials with different variables, \(2{x^3}{\rm{ }}\& {\rm{ }}5y\)

First, we’ll multiply by the coefficients. The coefficient of \(2{x^3}\)  is \(2\) , and the coefficient of \(5y\)  is \(5\) . After multiplying, you get \(2 \times 5 = 10\)

Next, we’ll multiply the variables using the exponential rule wherever needed. Here, the variable part is \({x^3}\) &            \(y\) . Multiplying these together, we get \({x^3} \times y = {x^3}y\) because the variables are different. We can multiply them without using the exponential rule.

Hence, the answer is
\(2{x^3} \times 5y = 10{x^3}y\) .

Multiplying Two Monomials With Same Variable

Let us learn the following steps using the example given below.

Considering two monomials \(4{a^2}\;\& \;3{a^4}\).

First, we will multiply the coefficients. The coefficient of \(4{a^2}\)  is \(4\)  and the coefficient of \(3{a^4}\)  is \(3\) . After multiplying, we get \(3 \times 4 = 12\) .

Next, we will multiply the variables using the rule of the exponents. Here, the variable parts are \({a^2}\)  & \({a^4}\) . Multiplying these we get, \({a^2} \times {a^4} = {a^6}\)  as we added the exponents of the variable as per the rule of the exponent.

Hence, the answer is
\(4{a^2} \times 3{a^4} = 12{a^6}\)

Interesting facts

• Multiplying two monomials will also yield a monomial.
• The sum or difference of two monomials may not result in a monomial.
• An expression with a single term with a negative exponent cannot be treated as a monomial. (i.e,) a monomial cannot have variables with negative exponents.

Solved examples

1. Multiply \(x\)  and \({x^2}\) .

Sol: Given two monomials are \(x\)  & \({x^2}\)

First, we’ll multiply by the coefficients. Both monomials have coefficients of \(1\). Therefore, the product is \(1\).

Next, we’ll use the exponential rule to multiply the variables. Here, the variable part is \(x\) & \({x^2}\). Multiplying these together, we get \(x \times {x^2} = {x^3}\)  because we added the exponent of the variable according to the rule of exponent \(3\)  .

Therefore, the answer is \(x \times {x^2} = {x^3}\).

2. Multiply by \(3x\) and \(4y\) .

Sol: Given two monomials are \(3x{\rm{ }}\& {\rm{ }}4y\)

First, we multiply the coefficients. The coefficient of \(3x\) is \(3\), and the coefficient of \(4y\) is 4. After multiplying, you get \(3 \times 4 = 12\)

Next, we will multiply the variables using the exponential rule wherever needed. Here, the variable parts are \(x,y\) . Multiplying these together, we get \(x \times y = xy\) . Since the variables are different, we can multiply them without using the exponential rule.

Therefore, the answer is \(3x \times 4y = 12xy\) .

3. Multiply by \(7{z^3}\) and \(9{z^2}\)

Sol: Given two monomials are \(7{z^3}{\rm{ }}\& {\rm{ }}9{z^2}\) .

First, we multiply the coefficients. The coefficient of \(7{z^3}\) is 7, and the coefficient of \(9{z^2}\) is 9. After multiplying, we get \(7 \times 9 = 63\) .

Next, we will use the exponential rule to multiply the variables. Here, the variable parts are \({z^3},{\rm{ }}{z^2}\) . Multiplying these together, we get \({z^3} \times {z^2} = {z^5}\) because we added the exponent of the variable according to the exponent rule.

Therefore, the answer is \(63{z^5}\) .

Conclusion

Monomial multiplication is a method of multiplying two or more monomials at a time. Multiplying a monomial by another monomial yields a monomial as the product. Depending on the type of polynomial we use.

Practice questions

1. Find the factorization of the monomial \(10{y^3}\) .

Ans: \(2 \times 5 \times y \times y \times y\) .

2. Multiply \(2abc\)and \({a^2}b\).

Answer: \(2{a^3}{b^2}c\) .

3. Multiply \(8\) and \(6{y^3}\) .

Answer: \(48{y^3}\)

Frequently Asked Questions

1. How do you find the product of two monomials?

Ans: The constant coefficient of one monomial is multiplied by the constant coefficient of another monomial, and the variable is multiplied by one variable.

2. What are the rules in multiplying monomials?

Ans: We will multiply by the coefficient. Next, we’ll multiply the variables using the exponential rule wherever needed.

3. What is a monomial ?

Ans: Monomial   is an algebraic expression that contains only one term.

 

Introduction

In every area of our lives, we are surrounded by numbers. Factors and multiples are also commonly used in our daily life. We use factors when we want to arrange things differently. For example, arrange books in rows and columns, group children in different ways, etc. Let’s consider the number 112. 112 can be divided by 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 16, 28, 56, and 112. So the factors of 112 are 1, 2, 4, 8, 14, 16, 28, 56 and 112. Likewise, the factors of 112 are -1, -2, -4, -8, -14, -16, -28, -56, and -112. Therefore, when looking for or solving problems involving factors, only positive numbers, negative numbers, whole numbers, and non-decimal numbers are considered.

Properties of factors

• All integers have a finite number of factors.
• The factor of a number is always less than or equal to the number; it can never be greater than the number.
• Except 0 and 1, every integer has at least two factors: 1 and the number itself.
• Find factors by using division and multiplication.

Prime factorization

When we write a number as the product of all its prime factors, it is called prime factorization. Every number in prime factorization is prime. To write a number as the product of prime factors, we may sometimes have to repeat these factors as well.

Example: To write the prime factorization of 8, we can write

\(8{\rm{ }} = \;2 \times 2 \times 2\)

that is, the prime factor 2 repeated 3 times. To write the prime factorization of 112, we can write

\(112 = 2 \times 2 \times 2 \times 2 \times 7\),

which is the prime factor of 2 repeated four times and multiplied by 7.

Therefore, the prime factors of 112 are 2 and 7. A number with more than two factors is called a composite number.

The number 112 has more than two factors.

Therefore, 112 is a composite number.

we know,

A number that is not divisible by any other number is called a prime number.

In the factors of 112, we get that

\({2^4}{\rm{ \times }}7\)  is prime.

Steps to find factors of 112

1. First we divide the given number 112 by to get a remainder of 0.
2. After getting the answer, all the numbers we get are called factors of the given number.
3. 1 is the only number that has factors of all numbers.
4. The given number itself is the highest factor of the given number.

What are the factors of 112?

We use LCM to find the prime factorization of 112.

Prime factors of \(112{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}7\)

Prime factor of \(112 = {2^4}{\rm{ \times }}7\)

112 has 10 factors, namely\(1,{\rm{ }}2,{\rm{ }}4,{\rm{ }}7,{\rm{ }}8,{\rm{ }}14,{\rm{ }}16,{\rm{ }}28,{\rm{ }}56{\rm{ }}and{\rm{ }}112\) .

All factors of \(112{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}1,{\rm{ }}2,{\rm{ }}4,{\rm{ }}7,{\rm{ }}8,{\rm{ }}14,{\rm{ }}16,{\rm{ }}28,{\rm{ }}56,{\rm{ }}and{\rm{ }}112\)

Factors of 112 in pairs

When we make pairs of factors, the product of the two factors is the given number itself.

Factor pairs of \(112:{\rm{ }}\left( {1 \times 112} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {2 \times 56} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {4 \times 28} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {7 \times 16} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {8 \times 14} \right)\)

112 factor pairs of \(\left( {1,{\rm{ }}112} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {2,{\rm{ }}56} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {4,28} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {7,{\rm{ }}16} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {8,14} \right)\)

We know the multiplication property,

\(a{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}b{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}b{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}a\)

Pairwise factors of \(112:{\rm{ }}\left( {1,{\rm{ }}112} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {2,{\rm{ }}56} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {4,{\rm{ }}28} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {7,{\rm{ }}16} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {8,{\rm{ }}14} \right)\)

The divisors of \(112:{\rm{ }}\left( {1,{\rm{ }}112} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {2,{\rm{ }}56} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {4,{\rm{ }}28} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {7,{\rm{ }}16} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( {8,{\rm{ }}14} \right)\) are the same.

Factor tree of 112

A factor tree is a special graph where we find the factors of a number and then find the factors of those numbers until we can no longer factor them. In the end, all we get are the prime factors of the original numbers.

A factor tree of 112 is a list of prime numbers when multiplied by the original number 112.

\(\begin{array}{*{20}{l}}{112{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}56}\\{56{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}28}\\{28{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}14}\\{14{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}7}\end{array}\)

If we write the multiple it will be \(112{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2\)

When splitting 56 further and writing it as a multiple of the number, it would be \(28{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2.\)

When splitting 28 further and writing it as a multiple of the number, it would be \(14{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2.\)

When splitting 14 further and writing it as a multiple of the number, it would be \(7{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2.\)

In prime factors the sum of this number is \(2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}7\).

So,

The factors of 112 are 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 16, 28, 56 and 112 itself.

Did you know

1.  Except 0 and 1, every integer has at least two factors: 1 and the number itself.
2. The factor of a number is always less than or equal to the number; it can never be greater than the number.112 is not a perfect square..
3. 112 is a composite number.
4. 112 is an even number.
5. 112 is not a perfect square.

Solved example

1. Find all the factors of 20.

Step 1: Write down all the numbers from 1 to 20.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20

Step 2: Now check which of these numbers are divisible by 20 and have no remainder.\(\begin{array}{*{20}{l}}{\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;20/1{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}20}\\{\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;20/2{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}10}\end{array}\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;20/3{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}indivisible\) .

Go ahead and divide 20 by these numbers.

Step 3: The factors of 20 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, and 20.

2. Find all the factors of 31.

31 is a prime number. The only two numbers that divide 31 are 1 and 31.

So the factors of 31 are 1 and 31.

3. Find the prime factors of 144.

As the name suggests, prime factorization is a method of deriving the prime factors of any number. Prime factors are prime numbers. The factors of these numbers are 1 and the numbers themselves. For example, 13 is a prime number because the factors of this number are 1 and 13.

Consider the number 144. Consider first the smallest possible factor, which is 2.

\(144{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}72{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}36{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}18{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}9{\rm{ }} = {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}3{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}3\) So, the prime factors of 144 are 2 and 3 because these factors are prime numbers.

Conclusion

The easiest way to determine the factors of a number is to divide by the smallest prime number with no remainder and continue the process. 112 has more than two factors, namely 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 16, 28, 56 and 112, so it is a composite number. 112 is an even number, and it is not a perfect square.

 

Frequently asked question 

1. What are the factors of 112?

Since 112 is a composite number, it has more than 2 factors, so the factors of 112 are 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 16, 28, 56, and 112.

2. What is the prime factorization of 112?

Prime factorization of 112, we can write \(112 = \;2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times {\rm{ }}2{\rm{ }} \times \;7\)

3. What are the negative pair factors of 112?

The negative pair factors of 112 are \(\left( { – 1,{\rm{ }} – 112} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( { – 2,{\rm{ }} – 56} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( { – 4,{\rm{ }} – 28} \right),{\rm{ }}\left( { – 7,{\rm{ }} – 16} \right)\) and \(( – 8, – 14).\)

Introduction

Due to the distinctive adaptations made by each cell type to the ecosystems they live in, plant cells and animal cells, two forms of eukaryotic cells, differ in a number of ways. A nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and mitochondria can be found in both plant and animal cells. Basic life processes like protein synthesis, energy production, and waste elimination are carried out by these organelles. While there is numerous similarity between both, there are also several significant distinctions that show how each type of cell has uniquely adapted to its environment and role.

What is a cell?

The fundamental unit of life and the foundation of all living things is the cell. Robert Hooke used the term “cell” in 1665 to refer to the discrete entities he saw in a cork while using a microscope. Each metabolic process required for the survival and expansion of the organism is carried out by a cell.

Plant cell function

The main function of a plant cell is to carry out the metabolic processes necessary for the survival and growth of the plant. These processes include:

1. Photosynthesis: Plant cells transform photosynthesis, which is then stored as sugar. Chloroplasts, specialized organelles present in plant cells, carry out this process, which is the plant’s main source of energy.
2. Cell division and growth: Plant cells divide and grow to allow the plant to increase in size and produce new tissue.
3. Transport: Plant cells are responsible for transporting water, minerals, and other materials within the plant. This is accomplished through the movement of substances across the cell membrane and through specialized structures such as the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
4. Storage: Plant cells store nutrients, waste, and other materials in specialized structures such as vacuoles.
5. Waste management: Plant cells are responsible for removing waste and toxins from the plant.

Animal Cell Function

The function of an animal cell is to perform all of the metabolic processes needed for the survival and growth of the animal. These processes can be grouped into several main categories:

1. Energy production: Cells must produce energy to carry out their metabolic processes. This is usually accomplished through cellular respiration, a process that takes place in the mitochondria and generates energy in the form of ATP.
2. DNA replication and protein synthesis: Cells must be able to replicate their DNA and synthesize new proteins to allow for growth and repair.
3. Response to signals: Cells must be able to respond to signals from their environment, such as changes in temperature, light, or chemicals.
4. Communication with other cells: Cells must be able to communicate with other cells to coordinate their functions and work together as a unit.
5. Contraction and movement: Some animal cells, such as muscle cells, are specialized for contraction and movement.

Difference Between Plant Cell And Animal Cell

Plant cells and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells, but there are several important differences between the two that are due to the unique adaptations of each cell type to the environments they live in. Some of the main differences between plant and animal cells include:

1. Cell Wall: Animal cells lack a cell wall, but plant cells have a hard cell wall formed of cellulose that offers support and protection.
2. Size: Plant cells are larger with rectangular shapes while animal cells are smaller and rounder.
3. Vacuoles: Plant cells have large central vacuoles that store water and waste, while animal cells have smaller, more numerous vacuoles.
4. Chloroplasts: Plant cells contain chloroplasts, which are specialized organelles that carry out photosynthesis, while animal cells do not contain chloroplasts.
5. Mitochondria: Both plant and animal cells contain mitochondria, but animal cells typically have more mitochondria to meet their higher energy needs.
6. Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus: Both plant and animal cells have endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, but they are more highly developed in plant cells.

Summary

A cell performs every metabolic task necessary for the organism to survive and grow. Even though both animal and plant cells are eukaryotic, there are several notable differences between the two as a result of the unique environmental adaptations that each type of cell has made. Plant cells have a strong cell wall made of cellulose that provides support and protection while animal cells do not have one. Compared to plant cells, which are often larger and more rectangular, animal cells frequently have a smaller, more spherical shape.

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Which cell organelles are absent from animal cells and only found in plant cells?

1. Animal cells lack several cell organelles that are only found in plant cells, including:
2. Cell wall: Unlike animal cells, which lack a cell wall, plant cells have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose that serves as support and protection.
3. Chloroplasts: Animal cells do not have chloroplasts, which are specialized organelles that perform photosynthesis in plant cells.
4. Animal cells have smaller, more numerous central vacuoles, but plant cells have a larger central vacuole that stores water and waste.

2. Why prokaryotic cell different from a eukaryotic cell?

Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells differ in several important ways:

1. Size: Compared to eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells are smaller and have a simpler structure. They only have a single circular chromosome for their genetic makeup, and they lack a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelles. On the other hand, eukaryotic cells are significantly bigger and more complicated, with a distinct nucleus and some additional organelles that are attached to membranes.
2. Genetic Material: Prokaryotic cells have a single chromosome of circular DNA located in the cytoplasm, while in eukaryotic cells it’s in the nucleus.
3. Cell Wall: Prokaryotic cells are with rigid cell walls made of peptidoglycan, while eukaryotic cells have a more complex cell wall or a plasma membrane.

3. Name the different types of plastids.

Plastids are membrane-bound organelles found in plant cells and some protists. There are several different types of plastids, including:

1. Chloroplasts: Chloroplasts are plastids that contain chlorophyll and are responsible for carrying out photosynthesis.
2. Leucoplasts: Leucoplasts are plastids that are not involved in photosynthesis and are found in cells that do not need to produce food. They can function as starch or oil storage organelles, or they can produce and store pigments.
3. Chromoplasts: Chromoplasts are plastids that produce and store pigments, such as carotenoids, which give plants their yellow, orange, and red coloration.
4. Amyloplasts: Amyloplasts are plastids that store starch, which is a source of energy for the plant.