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Introduction

Organic reactions discovered by a specific scientist are known as “named reactions,” and the namesake scientist is often credited with the discovery. Many of these reactions  have important practical and economic applications. One such reaction with a name in organic chemistry is the Finkelstein reaction. Hans Finkelstein, a German chemist, first described what is now known as the Finkelstein reaction. Because of its significance, this organic reaction bears the scientist’s name. This. Organic exchange reactions include the swapping of one halogen atom from one chemical for another halogen atom from another.

What is the Finkelstein Reaction? 

Finkelstein reaction follows \(S{N_2}\) mechanism which involves the replacement of halogen atom. The reaction leads to the formation of alkyl iodide by the reaction of alkyl halides with metal halide in the presence of a polar aprotic solvent.  The reaction takes place as follows:

The alkyl halide should be primary. The halogens used for this reaction may be Chlorine or Bromine. The solvent used for the reaction is acetic acid which is a polar aprotic solvent. 

Examples of Finkelstein Reaction 

Many alkyl halides can be made or synthesized with the aid of Finkelstein’s reaction, some examples are:

• The reaction of sodium iodide with methyl bromide results in the formation of methyl iodide is an example of Finkelstein’s reaction. And sodium bromide is obtained as a by-product. The reaction is:

• The reaction of sodium iodide with ethyl chloride results in the formation of ethyl iodide is also an example of Finkelstein’s reaction. And sodium chloride is obtained as an acid by-product. The reaction is,

• The reaction of Sodium iodide with ethyl bromide results in the formation of ethyl iodide is also an example of Finkelstein’s reaction. And sodium bromide is obtained acid by-product. The reaction is,

Finkelstein Reaction Mechanism 

• The reaction process is straightforward and simple to grasp because it follows an SN2 mechanism.
• The stereochemistry of the reactant is flipped at the end of the reaction. 
• The forward reaction is caused by metal halides’ low solubility.
• The alkyl halides are attacked by the nucleophile in the sodium iodide in a single step reaction.
• Which then leads to the production of alkyl iodide and sodium halide.
• The sodium bromide or sodium chloride precipitates out of solution during the process but is miscible with acetone.

Aromatic Finkelstein Reaction 

A catalyst, in addition to the Finkelstein reactants, can increase the efficiency of the Aromatic Finkelstein Reaction.

Aromatic Finkelstein reaction catalysed by copper(I) iodide in the presence of diamine ligands. Tri-n-butyl phosphine and Nickel bromide are two other catalysts that can be used. As shown in the procedure below, Benzyl iodide can be synthesised from benzyl chloride by reacting sodium iodide with acetone.

The oxidative addition reaction is the first stage of the aromatic Finkelstein reaction using a copper catalyst. After that, halide exchanges occur, and finally, reductive elimination takes place, which ultimately leads to the regeneration of an analogous catalyst. An excellent catalyst for the aromatic Finkelstein reaction is Copper (I) Iodide in the presence of a diamine ligand. The following illustration depicts a copper-catalyzed reaction between aromatic halides.

Uses of Finkelstein Reaction 

• This reaction is widely employed for the production of alkyl iodides for application in industry. 
• In addition, it is employed in the analysis of a specific group of alkyl iodides.
• It is through this process that chrysochlamic acid is generated.
• It is a necessary step in the production of -iodoalkyl esters.

Summary 

Finkelstein reaction is an organic named reaction that involves the production of alkyl iodide in a better way. The production of alkyl iodides is a complex mechanism, but it is made easy with the help of this reaction. It involves the use of alkyl halides and metal iodide such as sodium iodide. An organic polar aprotic solvent, acetone is used in the reaction. It is a single step by the molecular reaction which follows the \(S{N_2}\ mechanism. The first step in the reaction is the nucleophilic attack. And then the corresponding replacement of halogens takes place and alkyl iodides will be formed. The sodium salt is also precipitated in the reaction. The reaction also has some other applications, especially in the analysis of alkyl halides. 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the significance of NaI  in Finkelstein’s reaction?

Ans. Sodium iodide has high covalent character than other sodium halides and thus it makes it efficient than other halides as well as other iodine compounds. 

2. What are the limitations of the Finkelstein Reaction? 

Ans: The limitations of the Finkelstein Reaction include the fact that it is not applicable to tertiary alkyl halides, and that it is not applicable to aryl halides.

3. Why is Finkelstein reaction reversible?

Ans. The reaction described by Finkelstein illustrates the exchange of one halogen for another. Since various metal halide salts are soluble in acetone at varying concentrations, halide exchange can occur in both directions.

Introduction

To separate solids from liquids or gases, chemists employ filtration, which often involves using filter paper or a specialised filtration device. You’ll need a filter to let the liquid through but keep the solids out. The liquid that is recovered after filtration is called filtrate. Due to their inability to pass through the filter’s pores, solid substances are a byproduct of the filtration process that can be discarded. Most filtering processes rely on gravity filtration. The porous media used to retain the solids during filtration is called the filter medium, and the filtered suspension is called the slurry.

Filtration Definition

It’s a physical separation technique that can sort compounds out of mixtures, but not the other way around. It’s one of the simplest ways to separate a solid from a liquid that doesn’t dissolve. A filtering media is needed to separate the particulates from the liquids, which are then collected in the beaker. This filter acts as a liquid-only porous medium, stopping solids in their tracks and letting only liquids pass through. Filter cakes are the dense accumulation of solids on a filter after repeated filtration using the same filtering medium.

Filtration Process

The following method is employed when the particles to be separated are smaller than the pores of the filter media. This means the filter media is effective at keeping the liquids out while discouraging the solids. Additionally, the filter cakes act as a secondary filter by preventing the passage of particular slurries.

1. Take water that is to be filtered in a glass beaker.
2. Take a funnel. 
3. Make a little cone out of filter paper & place it on the funnel.
4. Finally, strain the mixture through the filter funnel.
5. The dirt substances will be visible on the filter paper while the remainder of the liquid has been filtered down.

Understanding the Concept of Filtration

Filtration is the process used to remove solid particles from a liquid or gaseous medium. Solid substances are always present in liquids and gases. By definition, a filter is a media that allows a liquid to pass through but traps any solids within it.

Filtration Diagram

The most frequent method of filtering is to use gravity to settle the substances first. The solution is then placed over filter paper, & the water drops because of gravitational attraction, & the residual stays in the filter paper itself.

 Filtration process

Filters in Use

1. Common filtering aids included silica, diatomaceous earth, cellulose, and perlite.
2. They have multiple practical applications, either alone or in tandem with conventional paper filters.
3. Brewing coffee involves passing hot water through a filter and grounds.
4. Coffee fluid is the result of filtration.
5. Tea bags (paper filters) are used similarly to accomplish the soaking process.
6. Organs that function as natural filters include the kidneys.
7. The glomerulus purifies the blood.
8. Many vital chemicals are reabsorbed into the circulatory system.
9. To get rid of allergens like dust and pollen from the air, HEPA filters are used in air conditioners and several types of vacuum cleaners. 
10. To remove contaminants from the water, many aquariums use filters made of fibres.
11. Belt filters are used to remove precious metals during the mining process.
12. Aquifer water is typically safe to drink since it has already been filtered by the earth’s permeable and solid rock.

Applications of Filtration

1. Dust is currently collected using vacuums with attached filters.
2. In rainwater harvesting, water from iss collected and stored underground. Before being used for drinking and cooking, this water is disinfected in a series of sedimentation tanks and filters.
3. Soil, sand, and insects can all be removed from water by filtration.
4. By absorbing the essential oils of flowers, fruits, and nuts, many oils become fragrant and nutrient-dense. They are purified and put to use in the pharmaceutical industry.
5. In the scientific world, filtration plays a crucial role. Some water-based compounds dissolve in oil, whereas those that don’t leave a residue that can be redissolved and used again by adding oil to the mixture.

Seven Steps of the Water Purification Process

Ion Exchange & Coagulation:

This is the initial stage in the procedure. The water from urban areas is polluted with undesired minerals, & this procedure assists in the removal of the minerals that generate hard water. This method is utilized to separate heavy metals such as iron. The dirt substances are subsequently deposited at the tank’s bottom.

Sedimentation:

The water then travels through the sedimentation procedure after the 1st stage. When the water settles, the floc sinks to the bottom. Sediment filters are used to catch dirt particles. This assists in preventing contamination of the equipment.

Filtration & Granular Activated Carbon:

Water is filtered & then transported through layers of sand, charcoal, & other materials in this procedure. The substances left behind from sedimentation are eliminated. Herbicides, chlorine, & other contaminants are eliminated by a carbon filtering process.

Disinfection:

Water is transported into a closed tank with UV lamps that act as a sterilising agent throughout this operation. If it’s underground water, this procedure is sufficient to purify it since all microbes are destroyed. 

Carbon Filters:

Carbon filters are used to adsorb impurities left after disinfection such as coulour impurities. 

Reverse Osmosis:

A semipermeable membrane is employed in this case to remove pollutants from the water. All dissolved contaminants left over from the previous processes are eliminated here. In addition, at this step, a sweet flavour is added to the water.

Store Purified Water:

After the above-mentioned procedure, clean water is kept in tanks.

Summary

The process of filtration is used to separate various liquid mixes. It can’t be used to purify chemicals in any way. The addition of a filtration medium component is required. As filtration velocity increases, the filter cake grows thicker. There is no cloudiness whatsoever in the filtrate. Sedimentation, distillation, evaporation, and decantation are only a few of the filtration techniques available. After completing the filtration process, the filters cannot be reused and must be discarded. While the pollutants being filtered out may be harmful, publicly discarding the filters can pose an even greater threat to the environment and its inhabitants.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What type of carbon is used in carbon filtering?

Activated carbon is used in carbon filtering which has a size of 0.5 to 50 μm. A bed of this charcoal is used to remove impurities through adsorption. 

2. How is distillation different from filtration?

Distillation uses an external heat source to change the concerned liquid to gaseous phase and isolate the pure liquid. . Filtration uses specific filters to remove the impurities from the concerned liquid. 

3. Which chemical disinfectant is used in water purification?

Chemicals such as bleach, alcohol, phenols, and iodine are used to purify water and kill microorganisms. 

Introduction

Limestones are a natural source of calcium sulphate. Calcium sulphate is an inorganic compound consisting of  \(CaS{O_4}\) and similar hydrates. In the form of anhydrite, it is currently commonly used as a desiccant.

Plaster of Paris is a specific hydrate, and the existence of all the others is attributable to the presence of the mineral gypsum. All of them look like insoluble white particles in water.

It is estimated that the world produces about 127 million metric tonnes of natural gypsum each year. Ca is a metal, but several of its compounds also play essential roles in various sectors and are therefore manufactured on a massive scale.

What is Calcium Sulphate?

Calcium sulphate as well as its hydrates are calcium salts. It appears as white particles that are far less soluble in water. The 2 most frequent hydrates include plaster of Paris as well as gypsum. Plaster of Paris seems to be a calcium sulphate hemihydrate produced if gypsum has been heated to 393 K. Whenever heated above 393 K, it produces anhydrite, sometimes termed as “dead burnt plaster,” that reverts to gypsum while added to water. Calcium sulphate is indeed an anti-caking agent, dough developer and strengthener, flour handling agent, pH controller, thickener, as well as yeast food. It has become a fine, odourless and white-yellow powder. It is required in the building sector to make artificial ceilings, plasters, as well as in various other materials.

Structure of Calcium Sulphate

\(CaS{O_4}\) is composed of 1 atom of Ca, 1 atom of S , as well as 4 atoms of O. It is an ionic molecule consisting of 1 calcium cation as well as 1 sulphate anion. The Ca ion has a valency of +2, whereas the sulphate polyatomic ion has a valency of -2. As a byproduct, whenever they interact, the neutral compound \(CaS{O_4}\) is formed.

Hydrous and Anhydrous Forms of Calcium Sulphate

Plaster of Paris and Gypsum

Both gypsum and plaster of Paris appear to be hydrated forms of  \(CaS{O_4}\). These two hydrated forms of calcium sulphate are well-known due to their numerous applications in various fields, including medicine and building. Plaster of Paris looks like a white powder that contains gypsum once it’s been hydrated fromCaSO4 salt. C

alcium sulphate hemihydrate is the technical name for them (\(CaS{O_4}.12{H_2}O\)). It’s being used much like a plaster cast to keep shattered bones in place while they heal. Gypsum is heated to 373 K, where it transforms into the compound. Chemically speaking, gypsum would be recognised as calcium sulphate dihydrate. \(CaS{O_4}.2{H_2}O\) must be its molecular formula.

It can be used to cover walls, ceilings, and even decorative pieces for protection and aesthetic purposes. It is impossible to form it into different forms. Once water is added to the plaster of Paris, it becomes gypsum and hardens.

Gypsum Formula

Uses of Calcium Sulphate

• It is most useful in making Plaster of Paris. Because it can be easily transformed into a paste by mixing it with water,  \(CaS{O_4}\) powder is particularly useful in this regard.
• It’s a high-quality calcium source.
• It finds widespread use in the building trades and mortar production.
• It is used in instruments for surgery, castings, moulds, and models.
• It can be found in soil conditioners and fertilisers.
• As with alabaster, it can be carved into works of art
• It is being put to use in a process meant to boost the hardness of brewing water.
• It’s used in the production of Portland cement.
• Cosmetics like foot lotions and shampoos include it.
• The dental industry is the primary user.
• Lead and arsenic, both of which contribute to water pollution, can be removed by using calcium sulphate. 
• Bread would get its calcium from calcium sulphate, which would also be used to fortify wheat.

Summary

An inorganic form of calcium, calcium sulphate occurs widely in the environment. It is possible to find hydrates of calcium sulphate in the wild.  \(CaS{O_4}\) is an inorganic calcium molecule with this chemical formula. Its primary ingredients are the well-known hydrates, Plaster of Paris and gypsum. Water does not dissolve this fine, odourless, white-yellow powder.  \(CaS{O_4}\) is used to strengthen flour due to its high calcium concentration. It has many applications in industrial production.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is Portland cement?

Portland cement is a binding material that comes in the form of a finely crushed powder, usually grey in colour, and is created by burning and grinding a mixture of limestone and clay or limestone and shale.

2. Is calcium sulphate mined or manufactured?

Commercial calcium sulphate is obtained from naturally occurring gypsum that is extracted or mined.

3. What property of calcium sulphate makes it a good food preservative?

Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate acts as a natural antioxidant, extending the expiry life of food as well as drinks.

Introduction

The discovery of calcium phosphate in bone tissue for the first time in 1769 marks the beginning of calcium phosphate’s usage in medicine. Calcium phosphates have played a key role in the field of bone tissue engineering. Calcium phosphate, the calcium salt of phosphoric acid, has several applications. Calcium phosphate inhibits the ability of the GI tract to absorb radium and strontium after oral consumption.

Phosphate is essential to the kidneys’ capacity to eliminate hydrogen ions, alters calcium concentrations, buffers acid-base equilibrium, and modifies calcium concentrations. Calcium phosphate’s phosphate ions likely react with hydrochloric acid in the stomach to neutralise the pH.  Calcium phosphate is a source of calcium and phosphate ions that promote bone homeostasis and dental remineralization, respectively, in toothpaste and systemic circulation.

What is Calcium Phosphate?

Calcium ions \(\left( {C{a^{2 + }}} \right)\) and inorganic phosphate anions constitute the calcium phosphate category of chemicals and minerals. Some “calcium phosphates” contain oxide and hydroxide as well. Calcium phosphates, which are white solids of nutritional value, are present in a range of living organisms, including bone minerals and dental enamel.

\(C{a_3}{P_2}{O_8}\)  is the chemical formula for calcium phosphate. It exists in milk as colloidal calcium phosphate, which consists of micelles bound to casein protein with magnesium, zinc, and citrate. Phosphoric acid and fertilisers are produced using several calcium phosphate minerals. Some calcium phosphates, when used in excess, can result in nutrient-rich surface runoff, which can cause eutrophication and algal blooms in receiving waters. It is soluble in hydrochloric acid and diluted nitric acid, but not in acetic acid or ethanol. Additionally, it is found in milk, bones, teeth, and coffee grounds, and it dissolves very slowly in water.

Characteristics of Calcium Phosphate

• Calcium phosphates are essential to geology, biology, medicine, dentistry, and industry.
• The solid rock known as apatite produces tribasic calcium phosphate, which is a complex and impure form of calcium phosphate.
• Calcium phosphate is a component of the mineral apatite, which is composed of phosphorite and other compounds.
• Its composition, solubility, stability, and structure influence its applications, formation, and processes of formation.

Calcium Phosphate Preparation

It can also be created by mixing solid calcium hydroxide with phosphoric acid. The following are examples of the chemical equation:

\[3Ca{{\left( OH \right)}_{2}}+2{{H}_{3}}P{{O}_{4}}\to C{{a}_{3}}{{\left( P{{O}_{4}} \right)}_{2}}+6{{H}_{2}}O\]

When calcium phosphate reacts with an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide, dibasic calcium phosphate is produced. Contrarily, the excess phosphoric acid can be added to either a dibasic or a tribasic calcium phosphate solution and allowed to evaporate to produce monobasic calcium phosphate.

Structure of \(C{a_3}{\left( {P{O_4}} \right)_2}\)

Calcium phosphate is an ionic crystal made up of 3 calcium ions and 2 phosphate ions. 

Properties of Calcium Phosphate- \(C{a_3}{\left( {P{O_4}} \right)_2}\)

The general properties of calcium phosphate are given below.

Solubility of Calcium Phosphate- \(C{a_3}{\left( {P{O_4}} \right)_2}\)

Calcium phosphate is insoluble in water but soluble in acids. The solubility of calcium phosphate has profound effects on the biological processes of resorption, the development of hard tissues, and pathological calcification.

Occurrence of Calcium Phosphate

Calcium phosphates can be found in nature in a variety of locations, and they are the primary minerals used to manufacture phosphate fertiliser and other phosphorus compounds.

Calcium and phosphorus supply the bulk of an animal’s mineral requirements. That’s why \(C{a_3}{\left( {P{O_4}} \right)_2}\)  is such a popular and widely used supplement for animals. Furthermore, the rock phosphate dissolving tests prefer Dicalcium Phosphate Dihydrate because it is the most soluble of the hardly soluble calcium phosphate crystals.

Chemical fertilisers that dissolve in water, like diammonium phosphate or triple superphosphate, are the most common means of introducing phosphorus to soil. Given that phosphorus tends to dissolve in solutions at higher concentrations, processes involving precipitation are frequently favoured. 

Health Hazards of Calcium Phosphate

When the amount of toxins ingested is greater than 2 gm/kg, the skin develops a sensitivity that is not seen in other people. If ingested, it could cause chemical pneumonitis. While calcium phosphate nanoparticles in and of themselves pose no danger to cells, their breakdown by lysosomes and subsequent uptake by endosomes can lead to an increase in intracellular calcium concentration. However, cells may eliminate calcium from the cytoplasm within a few hours unless exceptionally large quantities of calcium phosphate are utilised.

The cytotoxicity observed in some cell culture studies, in particular for the unfunctionalized particles, is likely due to the particles’ sedimentation and agglomeration on the cell layer, which results in a very high local particle concentration, subsequent cell death, and high absorption of particles. Calcium phosphate nanoparticles can enter the body through a number of routes, one of which is inhalation. No ill effects have been recorded except for those associated with chronic exposure to large particle doses.

Summary

Calcium phosphate can be found in crystalline or amorphous forms, and both have the same lack of flavour and aroma. However, it does not dissolve in acetic acid or ethanol. Dissolves very slowly in water. You can find it in foods like milk, meat, bones, and ground. Calcium phosphates have numerous uses across many disciplines, including biology, geology, industry, medicine, and dentistry. The composition, lability, stability, and structure of the material all play a role in its manufacture, uses, and applications.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the side effects of taking too much calcium phosphate?

Ans: Symptoms of overdose of calcium phosphate include nausea/vomiting, loss of appetite, mental/mood changes, headache, weakness, tiredness.

2. Is calcium phosphate cement biodegradable?

Ans: Calcium phosphate cement, which comes in powder and liquid form, is a bioactive and biodegradable grafting material that, once mixed, sets as predominantly hydroxyapatite, though it may also contain unreacted particles and other phases.

3. Calcium Phosphate is acidic or basic in nature?

Ans. Calcium phosphate is basic salt, as it is a salt of weak acid (phosphoric acid) and slightly stronger base (calcium hydroxide).

Introduction

The narrator of The Tribal Verse, G.N. Devy, explains how India’s storied culture evolved from the oral traditions of the indigenous adivasi people. Nonetheless, the author addresses the need of maintaining ancient indigenous literature as she details how these rich sources are being destroyed as a result of increased urbanization and advancements in technology.

Summary

There has been a gradual development of Indian literary resources, with their origins in the literature and culture of the country’s indigenous peoples. Most Adivasi literature takes the form of chanting or singing, and is performed in an environment where the author is in intimate proximity to nature. This legend is passed down orally from one generation to the next. 

Rapid urbanization, print culture, and commerce caused the loss of these resources and contributed to the marginalization of this group; thus, it is of the highest significance to conserve them.

Most tribal communities in India and the world are the same culturally. Their perspective regarding the world is quite different from that of modern-day society. They do not believe in cultivated imagination and have an acute sense of time.

Various tribes of India and their songs are sung at different times. These songs give us a small glimpse into the rich culture of tribals and their connection with nature. Also, it shows diversity among the tribals as in the case of the Munda tribe, songs are mostly sung during childbirth and in the case of the Kondh tribe song was sung during death. 

Tribal mask

Most of the Indian tribes are bilingual. In modern society, translating this folklore into other languages led to a change in the flavour of the original sense of their culture. Most of the translations were in English which carries a colonial mindset and does not reflect the originality.

We will need to look from a new perspective regarding the culture and traditions of the tribals. Instead of treating them as folklore, we need to see them as rich sources of literature and need to preserve them.

Conclusion

Whether it’s art, literature, culture or traditions everything needs to be preserved as they portray our true culture. These are prized possessions which we get from our forefathers. Hence, they are the true treasures which need preservation and conservation.

Textbook Question and Answers

1. Identify the common characteristics shared by tribal communities all over the world.

Ans: Tribal communities have cultural similarities for example living close to nature and worshipping them and interlinking God and human beings. They live more by intuition than reason. They do not believe in cultivated imagination. They live beyond the materialistic aspect of life. 

2. What distinguishes the tribal imagination from the secular imagination?

Ans. As tribes living close to nature interlink nature, human beings and GOD all together so their imagination admits fusion between existence and level of time in a natural way. For example in the tribal stories, we find the ocean flying in the sky like birds, stars growing like plants, mountains swimming in the water like fishes, etc which distinguish tribal imagination from secular imagination. Furthermore, according to them, stars, seas, mountains, etc can be angry, sad or happy. 

3. How does G.N. Devy brings out the importance of oral literary tradition?

Ans: G.N. Devy talks about the richness of oral literary tradition by highlighting the songs and folklore of the tribals. This folklore is attached to nature and its daily routine activities. This folklore is passed from generation to generation and is very sacred and unique. These verses are based on imagination and playfulness. Hence, it needs to be preserved.  

4. List the distinctive features of tribal arts.

Ans. Tribal art is considered to be unique and hallucinatory. Their close connection with nature is totally reflected in their art and that’s why it is considered sacred. The boundaries between art and non-art become almost invisible. They envisaged strict ordinary principles in their arts. Playfulness is the soul of their art. Their art is more relaxed, dynamic and bilingual in nature.

5. New literature is a misnomer for the wealth of the Indian literary tradition. How does G.N. Devy explain this?

Ans.  According to the author, tribal literature passes from generation to generation orally and hence it is not considered to be new literature as their literature is very sacred. Since people were not aware of their verses and mostly these verses are translated into English which carries a colonial legacy does not employ the correct explanation of their verses. The literature of Adivasi is not a new movement, hence it needs another perspective to look at. It should not be considered simply folklore, or dialect, but as literature and tribal language.

Extra Questions

1. What is deteriorating social conditions of tribals?

Ans: Loss of tribal literature and language due to rapid urbanization, print culture, and trade contributed to the marginalization of tribal populations.

2. Why does the author distinguish between imagination and memory in understanding the tribal arts?

Ans:  Tribal artists do not believe in materialistic aspects but rather work more on the basis of their racial and sensory memory. Their imagination is considered to be hallucinatory. They live in close contact with nature so they interlink humans, god, and nature altogether which is reflected even in their art like seas, mountains, etc can be sad, or happy. That’s why the author distinguishes between imagination and memory in understanding the tribal arts. 

3. How are tribal people important to society?

Ans. These ethnic and indigenous people have played a vital role in conservation of environmental management and development process as they posse’s traditional knowledge which has been useful in Eco-restoration. It has been noticed that these people know how to live with harmony in nature.

Introduction

Listed below is an essay by John Ruskin.  The following article is a description of what makes a good book, written by the author herself. He’s stressed the importance of education and reading material. The author argues that education is the key to success in life.

Book

Summary

The following essay is a discussion on the value of a great book. According to the author, most recently published works are little more than well-written letters and newspapers.

The newspaper is great for a morning read and letters from pals might be funny, but neither can replace a good book. The author argues that a book is written not for the purpose of conveying information but rather for posterity.

The book serves two purposes: to disseminate the idea to a wide audience and to archive the information for future generations. This is the thing or things that have become clear to him throughout the course of his life; this is the actual knowledge or sight that he has been granted by the total of his time in the sun and on the earth.

If you read carefully, you will find the genuine articles; these are the books, says the author. The author claims that the best novels are written by the greatest minds and leaders of their day.

One may learn as much as he wants from books since they contain a limitless amount of information. It’s true that a good book may lead you in many different directions. One may rise to any level of success and esteem he sets his mind to. For the wise, there will always be other brilliant minds to converse with.

One must not interpret or try to discover his own meaning, but rather he must delve deeply into the concepts of the philosophers expressed in the book. A person should only read books authored by more knowledgeable authors. The quality of a book should not be used as a criteria for its worth.

So it makes no sense that nobody has thought of it that way before. One cannot reach the meaning of the author at once, because the author does not tell everything plainly, he uses hidden ways to check the enthusiasm of the reader. Before reading a good book, one should make his mind like an Australian miner, and work tiresomely to find the metal he is in search of. The metal being the author’s mind or meaning, his words are like the rock which one has to crush and smelt in order to get at it. In the end, one should always remember that the world chosen well can do a lot more than many useless works. Knowledge can only be attained by reading good books. 

Textbook Question and Answers

1. What, according to Ruskin, are the limitations of the good book of the hour?

Ans: According to the author, the limitations of good books of the hour are that they are just like newspapers and magazines but well printed. A good book is one which conveys the message to a big mass.

2. What are the criteria that Ruskin feels that readers should fulfil to make themselves fit for the company of the Dead?

Ans: Hard-working readers are fit for the company of the dead.  Society’s wealth and name fame cannot buy compassion but rather love and kind thought does the work. 

3. Why does Ruskin feel that reading the work of a good author is a painstaking task?

Ans: A good reader does not keep his ideas on the surface, rather only a hard-working reader can detect the underlying meaning. The reader should be patient in order to understand the real meaning of life. A reader is compared to a gold miner he needs to dig in deep in order to reach the area of value and importance.

4. What is the emphasis placed by Ruskin on accuracy?

Ans: An educated person is different from an uneducated one as he knows what to read and what to ignore. The educated man is aware of the pronunciation and word usage which is unknown to an educated man. A person without knowledge is not well doing.

 

Extra Questions:

1. What is the role of books in making people civilized?

Ans: According to the author, books play a vital role in civilizing an individual. A person who has read some good books will know the true meaning of his knowledge and he will apply his knowledge precisely. The educated men will make a better society and embrace his culture as well.

2. Why did the author differentiate a good book from letters and newspapers?

Ans: The author differentiated a good book from letters and newspapers because they are not relevant for a long time. The reach of newspapers and newsletters ends fast but a good book is relevant forever. 

3.  Why is the author correlating the reader with an Australian miner?

Ans: The author is trying to say that, just like an Australian miner, a reader should work tiresomely on finding the meaning of the author. The words of the authors are like stones, which a reader has to crush to find the true meaning. And pickaxes are readers’ own care, wit and learning; their smelting furnace is your own thoughtful soul.

Introduction

Anatomy deals with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. It involves examining the physical and structural characteristics of living beings, including humans, animals, and plants. The knowledge of anatomy is important for medical professionals, biologists, and other scientists as it enables them to understand the functions and processes of different organisms.

Types of Anatomy 

Anatomy can be broadly classified into three types based on the organism being studied:

1. Human Anatomy: This branch of anatomy deals with the study of the structure and organization of the human body. It includes the study of various organs and tissues and their functions in the human body.
2. Animal Anatomy or Zootomy: This branch of anatomy is related to the structure and organization of animals. It includes the study of various body systems, organs, and tissues, and their functions in different animal species.
3. Plant Anatomy or Phytotomy: This branch of anatomy includes the structure and organization of plants. It includes the study of various plant organs such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits, and their functions in different plant species.

Classification of Anatomy

Anatomy can also be classified into two types based on the level of organization that is being studied:

1. Microscopic Anatomy or Histology: This branch of anatomy studies the structure and organization of tissues and cells that are not visible to the naked eye. It involves the use of microscopes to study the details of cells and tissues, including their structures and functions.
2. Macroscopic Anatomy or Gross Anatomy: This branch of anatomy deals with the study of the structures and organization of organs and tissues that are visible to the naked eye. It involves the study of the body’s organs, systems, and structures in their entirety, and their functions as a whole.

Tissue slide in Histological study

Difference between Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and physiology are two closely related fields of study that are both concerned with understanding the structure and function of living organisms. While they are related, there are important differences between these two disciplines.

• Anatomy deals with the structure and organization of living organisms, including their internal and external parts. This includes the study of the shape, size, and location of organs, tissues, and cells. It also involves the study of the relationships between different structures and how they are interconnected. The goal of anatomy is to understand the physical structure of organisms, from the smallest cells to the largest organs.
• Physiology, on the other hand, is the study of the functions and processes that occur within living organisms. This includes the study of how different systems and organs work together to maintain homeostasis or a stable internal environment. Physiology is concerned with the study of how living organisms function, including the chemical and physical processes that occur within cells and tissues.

 Importance of Anatomy

• Healthcare professionals, including physicians, nurses, and medical technicians, require a comprehensive understanding of anatomy to provide effective care for their patients.
• Anatomy plays a crucial role in disease diagnosis and treatment by enabling healthcare professionals to visualize and diagnose anatomical abnormalities in different parts of the body using medical imaging technologies.
• Knowledge of anatomy is essential for surgical interventions as surgeons rely on their understanding of anatomy to identify different tissues and organs during surgery, assess their relationships, and perform the necessary procedures safely and effectively.
• Studying anatomy is crucial for medical researchers as it enables them to explore new fields of medical science, develop new drugs and treatments, and improve medical technologies to enhance patient outcomes.

Different types of organs studied in anatomy  

Applications of Anatomy

Anatomy has many applications in different fields, including medicine, biology, and engineering. Some of the applications of anatomy include:

Medical Science

Anatomy is an essential subject for medical students as it provides the foundation for understanding the structure and functions of the human body. Medical professionals use their knowledge of anatomy to diagnose and treat diseases, perform surgeries, and develop new treatments.

Biology

Anatomy is also important in the field of biology as it helps to understand the structure and functions of different organisms. Biologists use their knowledge of anatomy to study the evolution of different species and to identify common ancestors. They also use anatomy to understand the functions of different organs and body systems.

Engineering

Anatomy has applications in engineering as well. Engineers use their knowledge of anatomy to design and develop medical devices and prosthetics. They also use anatomy to design and develop machines and robots that can mimic the movements and functions of living organisms.

 

Conclusion

Anatomy deals with the study of the structure and functions of living organisms. The main types of anatomy are gross anatomy, and microscopic anatomy. The study of anatomy is a critical discipline in the medical and biological sciences, playing a vital role in healthcare, medical research, and education. By understanding the human body’s structure, functions, and relationship with other living organisms, healthcare professionals, researchers, and educators can improve medical interventions and technologies, diagnose and treat diseases more effectively, and enhance patient outcomes.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What’s clinical anatomy?

Clinical anatomy is a branch of medical science that involves the study of the structure of the human body about its clinical significance. It is concerned with the structural and functional aspects of the body that are relevant to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases and disorders. 

2. What is systemic anatomy?

Systemic anatomy is a branch of medical science that focuses on the study of the human body in terms of its organ systems. It is concerned with the structure and function of the body’s major systems, like the skeletal, muscular, cardiovascular, and others. 

3. What is histology?

Histology, also known as microscopic anatomy, is the study of the microscopic structure and function of tissues and organs. It involves the examination of thin slices of tissues, which are stained and mounted on glass slides, under a microscope. Histology is a fundamental discipline in the fields of medicine, biology, and other life sciences.

Introduction  

Biosafety is a set of measures that are implemented to protect humans, animals, and the environment from exposure to hazardous biological agents. Biological agents can be found in a variety of settings, such as in research labs, medical facilities, and agricultural fields.

Biosafety measures are essential to prevent the accidental release of these agents, which can have serious consequences for human health and the environment. Biosafety protocols include the use of personal protective equipment, proper handling and storage of biological agents, and the implementation of containment measures.

The Importance of Biosafety

Biosafety is essential to protect public health, prevent the spread of infectious diseases, and ensure the safety of those working with biological agents. Inadequate biosafety measures can result in the accidental release of hazardous biological agents, which can have severe consequences, including the outbreak of infectious diseases, environmental contamination, and harm to animal and plant life.

Biosafety measures also play a critical role in preventing the intentional misuse of biological agents. The use of biological agents for malicious purposes, such as bioterrorism, is a growing concern in today’s world. Thus, proper biosafety protocols are essential to prevent the intentional release of these agents and to protect the public from harm.

Biosafety Levels

There are different types of laboratories, and they have different biosafety requirements. Laboratories are classified into four biosafety levels (BSLs) based on the agents they handle, and the associated risks.

• BSL-1: This is the lowest level of biosafety and is used for laboratories that handle agents that are not known to cause disease in healthy humans.
• BSL-2: This level is used for laboratories that handle agents that can cause disease in humans, but for which there are effective treatments or vaccines.
• BSL-3: This level is used for laboratories that handle agents that can cause serious or potentially lethal diseases through inhalation.
• BSL-4: This level is used for laboratories that handle agents that pose a high risk of aerosol transmission and for which there are no vaccines or treatments available.

Biosafety Levels

Biosafety Rules to be Followed

The following are the general biosafety rules that should be followed inside a laboratory:

• Activities like eating, drinking, smoking, applying cosmetics, or storing food are not allowed in the laboratory.
• Proper PPE must be worn, including lab coats, gloves, and eye protection.
• All laboratory work must be conducted in a BSL-appropriate facility.
• All personnel must receive appropriate training before beginning work in a laboratory.
• All laboratory waste must be decontaminated before being disposed of.
• All laboratory equipment must be properly maintained and decontaminated before and after use.
• Hands must be washed before entering and upon leaving the laboratory.
• All spills and accidents must be reported immediately.
• All experiments must be planned and conducted in a manner that minimizes the risk of exposure.

Biohazard waste 

Regulatory Authorities

Regulatory authorities are responsible for setting out the biosafety rules that need to be followed in laboratories. These authorities also enforce these rules to ensure that the labs remain safe. In the United States, the primary regulatory authorities are the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Both of these organizations have published guidelines on biosafety and provide training to laboratory personnel.

In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) is responsible for biosafety regulations. The PHAC has published the Canadian Biosafety Standards and Guidelines (CBSG) to ensure the safe handling of infectious materials.

In the European Union, the European Biological Safety Association (EBSA) is responsible for promoting biosafety.

Application of Biosafety

The goal of biosafety is to minimize or eliminate risks associated with the handling of biological materials. This is achieved by implementing a series of strategies and procedures that reduce the potential for exposure to these materials. 

• In healthcare, biosafety is a critical aspect of preventing the spread of infectious diseases. Hospitals and healthcare facilities must have robust biosafety programs in place to prevent the spread of diseases such as COVID-19. This can include the use of PPE such as gloves, gowns, and masks, as well as the implementation of strict protocols for cleaning and disinfecting equipment and facilities.
• In biotechnology, biosafety is critical to ensuring the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their safe development. GMOs are organisms that have been altered at the genetic level to exhibit specific traits or characteristics. While GMOs have the potential to revolutionize agriculture and improve crop yields, they must be handled and used safely to prevent potential risks to human health and the environment.
• In agriculture, biosafety is critical to ensuring the safety and efficacy of crops and livestock. This can include the implementation of measures to prevent the spread of plant and animal diseases, as well as the use of pesticides and other chemicals safely and responsibly.

Summary

Biosafety is an essential component of public health and safety. Proper biosafety measures are essential to protect humans, animals, and the environment from exposure to hazardous biological agents. Inadequate biosafety measures can result in the accidental release of these agents, which can have severe consequences for public health and the environment. By implementing effective biosafety protocols in workplaces, research labs, medical facilities, and agricultural settings, we can ensure the safe and responsible handling of biological agents and prevent the unintended release of these agents into the environment.

Frequently Asked Question

1. What are biological hazards or biohazards?

Biological hazard is a term used for a biological substance that is harmful to the health of living organisms, including humans, animals, and plants. These substances can come in many different forms, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and toxins produced by living organisms. Exposure to these hazards can occur through inhalation, ingestion, or direct contact with the skin or mucous membranes.

2. What is biorisk?

Biorisk, also known as biological risk, is a term that refers to the potential harm posed by biological hazards or pathogens to humans, animals, and the environment. Biorisk management is an essential aspect of biosafety and biosecurity programs, which aim to prevent and control the accidental or intentional release of hazardous biological agents.

3. What is laboratory biocontainment?

Laboratory biocontainment refers to the measures and procedures used to safely contain and control biological agents within a laboratory setting. The goal of laboratory biocontainment is to prevent the accidental release of hazardous biological agents and to minimize the risk of infection to laboratory personnel, other people, and the environment.

Introduction

At present, bioremediation has been recognized as one of the most effective methods for cleaning up contaminated soil and water. As a natural and sustainable technology, bioremediation can save costs, reduce environmental impact, and promote healthy living conditions. In this article, we will explore the benefits and challenges of bioremediation and provide you with insights into how bioremediation can be used to address the growing concerns about soil and water pollution.

What is Bioremediation?

Bioremediation is a process that uses microorganisms to break down, neutralize, or remove contaminants from polluted soil and water. The microorganisms used in bioremediation can be naturally occurring or genetically modified, and they can degrade organic or inorganic contaminants, such as petroleum, pesticides, herbicides, and heavy metals. Bioremediation can be carried out in situ, which means that the contaminated soil or water is treated on-site, or ex-situ, which means that the contaminated soil or water is removed from the site and treated in a controlled environment.

Bioremediation

Types of Bioremediation

1. Phytoremediation: This type of bioremediation uses plants to remove contaminants from the environment. Plants absorb pollutants through their roots, which are then broken down by bacteria in the soil. Phytoremediation is often used to treat contaminants such as heavy metals, organic compounds, and petroleum.

Phytoremediation

1. Bioaugmentation: Bioaugmentation involves the addition of microbes to contaminated sites to enhance their ability to break down pollutants. Microbes such as bacteria, fungi, and algae are added to the contaminated area, where they consume the pollutants and convert them into less harmful substances.
2. Biostimulation: Biostimulation involves adding nutrients, oxygen, or other substances to the contaminated site to promote the growth of naturally occurring microbes. This process enhances the ability of the existing microbial community to break down pollutants.
3. Bioventing: Bioventing is a process that involves the injection of air or oxygen into contaminated soil to promote the growth of aerobic microbes. These microbes break down pollutants into less harmful substances such as carbon dioxide and water.
4. Composting: Composting is a type of bioremediation that involves the breakdown of organic pollutants by bacteria and other microorganisms. Organic waste, such as food waste or agricultural waste, is mixed with other materials such as wood chips, leaves, and grass clippings to create a compost pile. The microbes in the compost pile break down the organic waste and convert it into nutrient-rich soil.

Bioremediation Process

The bioremediation process involves several steps, including:

1. Site Assessment: The first step in the bioremediation process is to assess the contaminated site. This involves collecting soil and water samples to determine the type and extent of the contamination.
2. Selection of Bioremediation Technique: Once the site has been assessed, the most appropriate bioremediation technique is selected based on the type and extent of contamination, as well as other factors such as cost and time constraints.
3. Preparation of Site: The contaminated site is prepared for bioremediation, which may involve the removal of debris or other obstacles that may hinder the process.
4. Application of Bioremediation Technique: The selected bioremediation technique is applied to the contaminated site, which may involve the addition of microbes, nutrients, or other substances to the soil or water.
5. Monitoring: The bioremediation process is monitored to ensure that the pollutants are being broken down and that the environmental conditions are suitable for the growth of the microbes.
6. Completion: Once the pollutants have been sufficiently broken down, the bioremediation process is considered complete.

The Benefits of Bioremediation

Bioremediation offers several benefits over traditional methods of pollution control. Some of these benefits include:

1. Natural and Sustainable: Bioremediation is a natural process that uses living organisms to break down and degrade pollutants. It is a sustainable approach to pollution control and does not rely on the use of chemicals or heavy machinery.
2. Cost-Effective: Bioremediation is a cost-effective method of pollution control. It requires fewer resources and is less expensive than traditional methods such as excavation and incineration.
3. Versatile: Bioremediation can be used to clean up a wide range of pollutants, including oil spills, heavy metals, and organic chemicals.

Recovery of the ecosystem by bioremediation

The Challenges of Bioremediation

Although bioremediation has many benefits, there are also some challenges associated with this technology. The success of bioremediation depends on several factors, including the type and concentration of contaminants, the characteristics of the soil or water, the availability of nutrients and oxygen, and the temperature and pH of the environment. In some cases, bioremediation may not be effective due to the lack of suitable microorganisms, or the presence of inhibitors that prevent the microorganisms from degrading the contaminants. Moreover, bioremediation can take a long time to complete, and it may require multiple treatments over a period of several months or years.

The Applications of Bioremediation

Bioremediation has been used to address a wide range of contaminated sites, including industrial, agricultural, and residential areas. Some examples of bioremediation applications are:

• Petroleum spills: Bioremediation has been used to clean up oil spills in marine and terrestrial environments. The microorganisms used in bioremediation can break down the hydrocarbons in the oil and convert them into harmless byproducts, such as water and carbon dioxide.
• Agricultural runoff: Bioremediation has been used to reduce the levels of pesticides and herbicides in agricultural runoff. The microorganisms used in bioremediation can degrade the chemicals and prevent them from reaching the groundwater or surface water.
• Landfills: Bioremediation has been used to reduce the levels of organic and inorganic contaminants in landfills. The microorganisms used in bioremediation can break down the contaminants and reduce the volume of waste.

Conclusion

In conclusion, bioremediation is a valuable tool in the cleanup of contaminated sites, and several types of bioremediation techniques can be used. The bioremediation process involves several steps, and each step is crucial to the success of the process. With careful planning and execution, bioremediation can help to restore contaminated sites to a healthier state.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What are the disadvantages of bioremediation?

Bioremediation may not be effective for all types of pollutants, and the process can be slow.

2. Is bioremediation safe?

Bioremediation is a safe and environmentally friendly approach to pollution control. However, it is essential to ensure that the process is properly managed to prevent any unintended consequences.

3. How much time may bioremediation require?

The average length of the bioremediation process can range from several months to several years, depending on factors such as the size of the polluted region, the number of toxins present, the temperature, the density of the soil, and whether ex-situ or in situ bioremediation is used.

 

Introduction 

The appendix is a small, finger-shaped organ that extends from the large intestine. It is believed that the appendix does not serve any important purpose in the body. Appendicitis is a medical condition that occurs in which the appendix becomes inflamed, swollen, and filled with pus. This can happen to anyone, but it is most common in people between the ages of 10 and 30.

Causes of Appendicitis

The specific cause of appendicitis is unknown, however, it is thought to occur when the appendix becomes blocked, which is usually due to stool, a foreign material, or cancer. This blockage can lead to bacterial growth, which can cause inflammation and swelling of the appendix. Other factors that may contribute to the development of appendicitis include genetics, age, and a weakened immune system.

Symptoms of Appendicitis

The most common symptoms of appendicitis include:

• Abdominal Pain: The pain usually starts near the belly button and can be severe and sudden.
• Loss of Appetite: Those suffering from appendicitis may experience a loss of appetite and may not feel like eating anything.
• Nausea and Vomiting: Appendicitis can cause nausea and vomiting, especially when combined with other symptoms.
• Fever: Appendicitis can cause a low-grade fever.
• Diarrhea or Constipation: Some people with appendicitis may experience changes in their bowel movements.

Process Appendicitis Diagnosed?

A physical exam, blood tests, and imaging studies are typically used to diagnose appendicitis. A press on the lower right side of the abdomen during the physical exam by a doctor use to check for pain or swelling. Blood tests may be performed to look for symptoms of illness, such as an increased white blood cell count. Tests like ultrasound or CT scan, may be done to confirm the diagnosis and check for complications.

What is the Treatment for Appendicitis?

The most common treatment is surgery, which involves the removal of the appendix. The surgery is called an appendectomy and is usually performed as an emergency procedure. During the surgery, a small incision at the lower right side of the abdomen is done to remove the appendix. In some cases, antibiotics may be prescribed to help fight the infection and reduce inflammation.

After the surgery, patients are advised to rest and avoid any strenuous activities for a few weeks. Patients should also avoid lifting heavy objects, driving, or performing any other activities that could put pressure on the incision site. Full recovery can take several weeks, but most patients can return to their normal activities within a month.

Complications of Appendicitis

Although appendicitis can usually be treated with surgery, some potential complications can arise if it is not treated promptly.

Here are some of the complications of appendicitis:

1. Ruptured appendix: If appendicitis is not treated promptly, the appendix can burst, leading to a serious infection in the abdomen. This is a life-threatening complication that requires emergency medical attention.
2. Abscess: It is a collection of pus that can form in the abdomen as a result of a burst appendix. It can cause fever, abdominal pain, and other symptoms. Treatment for an abscess typically involves draining the pus and antibiotics.
3. Peritonitis: Peritonitis is a serious infection of the lining of the abdomen that can occur when the appendix bursts. It can cause fever, severe abdominal pain, and other symptoms. Treatment for peritonitis typically involves hospitalization, intravenous antibiotics, and surgery to remove any infected tissue.
4. Bowel obstruction: In some cases, a blockage in the intestine can occur as a result of appendicitis. This can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and constipation. Treatment may involve surgery to remove the blockage and any damaged tissue.
5. Fertility issues: In rare cases, untreated appendicitis can lead to infertility in women. This is because the infection can spread to the fallopian tubes and ovaries, causing scarring and damage.

Prevention of Appendicitis

There is no guaranteed way to prevent appendicitis. However, there are several steps you can take to reduce your risk of developing appendicitis or experiencing complications from it:

1. Eat a healthy diet: Eating a well-balanced, nutritious diet can help reduce your risk of developing appendicitis. It is also important to avoid consuming large amounts of high-fat or high-sugar foods, as these can be harder for the body to digest.
2. Stay hydrated: Adequate hydration can also help keep your digestive system functioning properly and prevent infections.
3. Get regular exercise: Engaging in regular physical activity can help keep your body healthy and reduce your risk of developing many types of illnesses, including appendicitis. 
4. Seek prompt medical attention for any abdominal pain: If you experience any symptoms of appendicitis, it is important to seek medical attention as soon as possible

Conclusion

In conclusion, appendicitis is a common medical disorder that, if neglected, can lead to serious complications. It’s crucial to get medical help right away if you develop any appendicitis symptoms, such as fever, nausea, vomiting, appetite loss, or abdominal discomfort. Early intervention can lessen the risk of significant consequences and increase your chances of a complete recovery.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1.  What to do if I think I have appendicitis?

If you are experiencing symptoms of appendicitis, you should seek medical attention right away. Delaying treatment can lead to serious complications.

2. The Appendix is a Vestigial Organ for what reason?

The appendix is commonly believed to be a vestigial organ, meaning it no longer serves a useful purpose in the human body. While it was once thought to have no function at all. However, the appendix can still be removed without causing any harm to the body, and many people live perfectly healthy lives without their appendix.

3. Can appendicitis go away on its own?

No, appendicitis cannot go away on its own. It requires prompt medical attention to prevent serious complications.