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Introduction

A battery is an electronic device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy through a redox reaction. They are typically composed of a combination of cells, with cells being the fundamental unit of batteries. Energy is stored in these cells and drawn as current and thus, the output of any battery depends on the combination of cells used inside it. 

There are two terminals on batteries, of which, one end is known as the cathode and the other end as the anode. Upon connecting a circuit to the battery, electrons can move from one node to the other and thus, current can flow through the circuit. In electrical circuits, batteries and cells can be connected in various combinations such as series, parallel, and even mixed. Today, various types of batteries are available in the market, including Pb-acid batteries, Li-ion batteries, Ni-Cd batteries, etc.

Important terms related to battery

EMF of battery: When no external factors and voltage sources are present, the potential difference between the two terminals of the battery is known as its emf, short for electromotive force.

Terminal voltage: When current starts flowing in the circuit, the potential difference between the battery’s terminals is termed as terminal voltage. Note that since the battery is an electrical device, resistance to current flow is natural. The resistance offered by the battery itself is known as internal resistance, and it creates a voltage drop across its terminals.

Let V be this voltage drop and E be the emf of the battery. Then,

Internal voltage drop= E-V

Internal resistance: As mentioned, the battery has an inherent resistance inside it, which is known as internal resistance.

Batteries in series and parallel

Series combination

This is like creating a train of batteries. The positive terminal of each battery is connected to the negative terminal of the next one and in this arrangement, the same amount of current flows through each of them. Hence, the voltages offered by the batteries can be added algebraically to get:

Parallel combination

In this combination, the positive terminals of all the batteries are connected to each other and the same is done for all the negative ones. In this configuration, the voltages dropped across the terminals remain the same and we can add current algebraically.

Connecting batteries in series

Series combination is used when we need to increase the voltage without changing the amount of current. Here is an example:

Say we had a battery of EMF 20 V and capacity 100 A-h. Then, if we connect them in series as shown below, we would end up with a combination that yielded us 40 V output but with no change in capacity.

Series combination

Hence, we get an output with increased voltage. Note that the capacities of the batteries must be the same or they might get damaged.

Advantages of Series Combination

1. Since the current flow does not increase, there is no additional heat generated.
2. It is simpler than parallel combinations.
3. The voltage drop increases.

Disadvantages of Series Combination

1. Any break or damage in the circuit at any point will damage the circuit.
2. Increased number of components also increases the resistance of the circuit.
3. A low voltage system is not compatible with this combination.

Batteries in Parallel

If we wish to increase the capacities of batteries without changing the output voltage, we use a parallel configuration. This increases the current flow in the circuit. For instance, given two batteries of 24 V, 100 A-h each, connecting them in parallel would give us a battery that provides 200 A-h at 24 V.

Parallel Combination

This sort of combination is used in solar panels.

Advantages of Parallel Combination

1. The capacity increases, yielding to increase in use-time,
2. The voltage remains the same.

Disadvantages of Parallel Combination

1. The current is increased, causing heat to increase.
2. Charging batteries in this configuration takes longer.

Mixed Combination

As implied by the name, mixed combination is the combination of some batteries connected in series linked together in parallel combination or vice versa. This is a complex arrangement that can help us generate almost any combination we want from a given bunch of batteries.

For example, suppose we were given six batteries of 15 V and 100 A-h each. We could combine them as follows:

1. Set 1 – B1 and B2 linked in series = 15V + 15V = 30V, 100 amp hour
2. Set 2 – B3 and B4 linked in series = 15V +15V = 30V, 100 amp hour
3. Set 3 – B5 and B6 linked in series = 15V + 15V = 30V, 100 amp hour

Next, we would combine the above sets in parallel, giving us a 30 V, 300 A-h configuration, visible in the diagram below.

Mixed combination

Hence, the effective voltage drop will remain at 30 V, but the capacity would be three-folds.

Summary

Depending on our requirements and the scenario in question, different combinations of batteries can be used. The most commonly used ones are series, parallel, and mixed grouping of batteries. What we use is entirely up to us and depends on the requirements of the circuit. The output of the configuration depends on its design and thus, if we needed higher voltage, we would opt for series combination and if needed higher capacity, we would use parallel configuration. Similarly, mixed grouping allows us to generate arbitrary configurations from a given set of batteries.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Can we put a 12V 100 amp hour battery and a 15V 200 amp hour battery in a series combination?

No, since they have different capacities. For series combination, the capacities of the batteries must be the same.

2. How does a battery work?

A battery is composed of electrochemical cells, which convert chemical energy into electrical energy. When connected to a circuit, ions flow inside, leading to the flow of current.

3. Name the reaction that takes place in the batteries

The process is known as redox reaction and it involves reduction and oxidation simultaneously.

4. How are batteries classified?

Batteries may be classified as follows:

1. Primary batteries: These are one-time batteries which can not be recharged after they get depleted.
2. Secondary batteries: These batteries can be recharged after use, giving them longer life. 

5. What type of electrical combination is used for domestic purposes and why?

In domestic applications, parallel combination is used since it supplies an equal amount of voltage to all the devices, which is necessary for proper functioning.

Introduction

Protein, DNA, and RNA can all be separated from one another using an external electric field and this laboratory technique. As the gel or matrix employed includes a given size and enables just a particular molecule, the separation of molecules occurs on the basis of charge and size. Only very small particles, such as atoms or ions, may fit through the pores. By doing so, molecular separation is possible.

When electricity flows, ions can migrate to various poles. In electrophoresis, the movement of anions is known as anaphoresis and that of cations is known as cataphoresis. When a current is applied, proteins migrate to the positive poles, where they may be more easily separated.

What is Electrophoresis?

Electrophoresis is the process by which a current drives charged molecules to separate poles. Molecules with a positive charge will go away from the cathode and towards the anode. Negatively charged molecules will seek out a cathode, which is the opposite pole of an electrode.

As proteins and nucleic acids are negatively charged, they gravitate towards the cathode. Because to its association with electricity and ion motion, electro kinetics is another name for this field. Capillary electrophoresis and slab electrophoresis are the two most common forms. Gel and paper electrophoresis are examples of capillary electrophoresis, while Iso-electro focusing and Zone electrophoresis are examples of slab electrophoresis.

Gel Electrophoresis

Applications of Electrophoresis

Electrophoresis is applied in many fields because of its feasibility and inexpensive mode. Some of its applications are,

DNA Fragmentation and DNA Analysis 

Gel electrophoresis is the process used for the separation of DNA fragments based on their size. The approximate size of DNA is also obtained in this process

Protein Detection

Gel electrophoresis is again employed for the detection of proteins. Proteins have higher migratory power and that is employed for its detection. By the application of external current, the charged particles of proteins will migrate towards their opposite electrodes. As protein is negatively charged it will migrate towards the cathode. It can also use the liquid matrix for the separation. The majority of protein applications can be achieved by the use of this process. They include purity determination and purification of proteins.

Testing of Antibodies

Immune electrophoresis detects antibodies. Antibodies on a gel do it. blood test. If the sample contains the antigen, an antigen-antibody complex will form. IgA, IgM, etc. are easily diagnosed.

Factors affecting the Process of Electrophoresis

Some factors can substantially affect the process of electrophoresis. They are,

Electric Field: Electric field is responsible for the movement of charged particles towards the oppositely charged electrodes. So it plays an important role in the process of electrophoresis.

 Sample features/details: The features of the sample such as size, shape, and charge have an important role since it is a size-based and charge-based separation. If the charge of a molecule is high the rate of migration will also high. But if the size increases the rate will decrease.

Buffer: For stabilizing the pH of the medium buffer solution is necessary the use of zwitterionic buffers will be much better.

Supporting Medium: It plays a predominant role since the medium can alter the rate of migration by having some adsorption property. Electro osmosis will also result due to some mediums. So selection of a proper support medium will increase the rate of migration.

 How does gel electrophoresis work?

Gel electrophoresis is a type of electrophoresis in which charged particles or ions of biological molecules can be separated by the application of an external field. They move through a gel hence the name gel electrophoresis is used. And its movement is called migration. And the migration of ions is to oppositely charged electrodes. The electric current for this process is applied across the gel. The gel acts as a sieve since it contains small pores that can only allow small-sized molecules. DNA fragments are distinguished using this electrophoresis. And DNA is a negatively charged species so it will migrate to the rds cathode.

What is agarose gel electrophoresis?

One of agar’s main components is a matrix for the electric current-based synthesis of macromolecules. Agarose gel is commonly employed as a matrix in the separation of DNA and big protein molecules because it is simple to cast, has a good pore size, and has a good gel strength. It has several charged groups and aids in water movement in the opposite direction of DNA movement towards the anode. A larger concentration of agarose gel is required for the separation of tiny molecules.

What are the advantages of electrophoresis?

The advantages of electrophoresis are,

• The mode of operation of this technique is easy.
• Short time is only needed.
• Needs only a low sample.
• The consumption of electrolytes during the process is low.
• Can be used as an analytical tool and also as a synthesis tool.
• The bulk amount of proteins shall be separated.
• Inexpensive apparatus.

Summary

Samples are separated by size and charge using electrophoresis. It is medium dependent, and the various forms it takes are defined by the medium used. Several types of electrophoresis in tubes and capillaries. Gel electrophoresis, zone electrophoresis, etc., are also included. Gel electrophoresis stands out because it is used to separate proteins, DNA, RNA, and other biomolecules. Gels aid the separation process since only molecules of a certain size may pass through them; if an electric field is applied, the molecules in question will align themselves into a distinct band, making them easy to identify. The supercoiled structure of agarose gel makes it a viable alternative matrix. Electrophoresis has various benefits due to being a cheap and efficient method.

 Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the difference between SDS-PAGE and Native PAGE?

Ans. SDS-PAGE (sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) is a technique used to separate proteins based on their size and charge. Native PAGE (polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) is a technique used to separate proteins based on their size and shape. 

2. What is Capillary Electrophoretic Enzyme Assay?

Ans. Applications of the analytical separative technique known as capillary electrophoresis (CE) extend far beyond the realm of enzymatic research.

In an open capillary, the substrate and the product are separated by size and charge in an electric field.

3. What is the haemoglobin electrophoresis test?

Ans: It is an electrophoresis test that can be used to the identification of the amount of haemoglobin present in the sample blood.

Introduction

In the lab, chromatography is used to dissect complex mixtures into their constituent parts. The process of separating the components of a mixture is known as chromatography. In order to accomplish this, a mobile phase and a stationary phase are utilised. Since various components in a mixture are subject to varying degrees of influence from the solvent, the mobile phase transports some of the mixture’s components while leaving the stationary phase behind As a result, certain parts will progress quickly while others lag behind. Each component has a unique Rf value. Considering how useful it is in both the purification and analysis processes, it can be found in a wide variety of contexts.

What is the Chromatography technique?

For analytical purposes, a mixture’s distribution into two phases provides a useful starting point for determining how to break it down into its constituent parts. Two such stages are the “mobile” and “stationary” states.

The non-moving phase is called the stationary phase, while the moving phase is called the mobile phase. A glass plate, column, sheet, or anything else is acceptable as the stationary phase. The mobile phase might be either a gas or a liquid.

Since it turns out that every type of molecule has its own unique characteristics. As a result, the Rf value will be unique to each. The Rf number describes how many solute molecules were transported for every one solvent molecule.

Chromatography

What is the Principle of Chromatography?

Chromatography operates on the idea of separating components based on their varied affinities to phases involved. Different components in a combination bind to the mobile phase and the stationary phase with varying strengths.

Applications of Chromatography in the Pharmaceutical Industry

 In the pharmaceutical sector, chromatography is commonly employed as a quality control measure once a chemical has been manufactured.Many different types of chromatography have been used in the pharmaceutical sector. It is employed in both compound analysis and the industrial production of compounds. Separation of chiral substances has also been discovered to benefit from chromatography. 

Applications of Chromatography in the Food Industry

Chromatography has been used for quality control in the food business. Chromatography is useful for determining what kinds of ingredients are in a given dish. Considering the importance of health, it is crucial to pack food with nutrients and vitamins. Several illnesses may be brought on by a deficiency in necessary vitamins and nutrients.

Applications of Chromatography in the Chemical Industry

In the chemical industry, it has applications in the chemical synthesis process. It acts as an assistant for obtaining a particular product. Chromatography has also been used in the pesticide industry for finding the presence of contaminants. For checking the pollutant present in water and air chromatography is used. So it is used in the chemical industry for monitoring several chemical reactions.

Applications of Chromatography in the Field of Molecular Biology

Biological separation using chromatography brings into the world considerable impact on the health and wellness of the people. Without this technique, the preparation method we employ, the synthesis of a particular molecule, etc. will be useless. It has helped researchers to find results faster and with purity. So it has a significant role in molecular biology too.

How is chromatography used in the environmental analysis?

Chromatography has wide application in the analysis of environmental issues. Understanding whether the air is polluted or not is very important since quality air is very essential for the proper living of species. Gas chromatography has been used for this case. 

How is chromatography useful in Forensic Science?

 Chromatography has a vital application in forensic science. For collecting information about the cause of death of a human, chromatography has been employed. It can be used for testing whether a person is infected with some poison, alcohol, drugs, etc. 

Commonly employed chromatography techniques include:

Column chromatography: The stationary phase used in this chromatography is a column and a solvent is used as the mobile phase. Components are separated by their difference in affinity to the solvent. And is used to remove impurities present in a particular compound.

 Ion-exchange chromatography: Separation based on the ions involved in a compound. An ion exchange resin is used as the stationary phase. For water purification, this technique is used.

 Gel-permeation (molecular sieve) chromatography: Separation based on the size of the molecule is gel permeation chromatography. For finding the molecular weight of polymers. This technique is used.

 Affinity chromatography: It is based on specific and highly selective reactions of components present in a mixture. Used for the purification of proteins and nucleic acids.

Paper chromatography: It involves the use of paper as a stationary phase and a solution or solvent as the mobile phase. It is used for purity checking in the pharmaceutical industry.

Thin-layer chromatography: Separation using a thin layer of adsorbent is thin layer chromatography. Mainly used to separate none volatile substances.

Gas chromatography (GS): Separating volatile chemical compounds is gas chromatography. And the mobile phase is a gas stream and a column is used as the stationary phase. It is used widely in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries.

 Dye-ligand chromatography: Columns pasted with dye ligand act as a stationary phase and are separated with the use of affinity. It is used for protein purification.

Hydrophobic interaction chromatography: This separation of components is based on the hydrophobicity of components. Low water-soluble molecules are separated based on this technique. For example in protein purification. 

 Pseudo Affinity chromatography: The separation of protein molecules by the use of dyes that mimic ligands is pseudo affinity chromatography. It is used in protein purification. 

High-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC): It involves the use of liquid mobile phase under high pressure and thereby separating molecules from its mixture. It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for the identification of impurities present in it.

Summary

Chromatography is one of the analytical techniques that may be used to separate and purify molecules. It can be used in the pharmaceutical and food industries, among others. Although while analysis is where this technology shines most, it has also been put to use in molecule creation. Chromatography uses two phases—a mobile phase and a stationary phase—to isolate individual substances from a mixture. These phases also serve as a basis for categorising the various chromatographic methods. Methods including gas chromatography, gel permeation chromatography, paper chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography, and others are all included.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the difference between flash and preparative chromatography??

Ans: Flash chromatography is used to quickly purify compounds, while preparative chromatography is used to purify compounds with higher resolution.

2. What is isocratic and gradient elution?

Ans: Isocratic elution is used to separate and analyze compounds with a constant mobile phase composition, while gradient elution is used to separate and analyze compounds with a changing mobile phase composition.

3. Which criteria must be followed before selecting a mobile phase?

Ans: Before selecting a mobile phase we need to consider whether it is soluble or insoluble in a particular component that is going to separate. And also need to check the polarity of the compound that has been employed. 

Introduction 

Antonin Prandtl invented the first centrifuge in order to industrially separate milk and cream. Later in 1869, a Swiss researcher and physician named Meischer used centrifugation to separate DNA from the chromosomes in white blood cells. The field of genetics advanced significantly as a result of his work. Thanks to the work of many different chemists and biologists, the centrifuge and centrifugation have progressed and found new uses. Science centres and laboratories all around the world continue to make use of centrifuges and centrifugation to this day.

What is a Centrifuge?

A centrifuge is a machine that maintains a continuous centrifugal force to separate mixtures. It works on the principle of sedimentation. Inside a centrifuge the components of a mixture separate in accordance to their density under the influence of gravitational force. A centrifuge is operated by an electric motor. A centrifuge is a machine that maintains a continuous centrifugal force to separate mixtures. A centrifugal force is an internal force experienced by a rotating or revolving object. Centrifugal force acts outwards and against the direction of the centre of rotation. It works on the principle of sedimentation. Inside a centrifuge the components of a mixture separate in accordance to their density under the influence of gravitational force. A centrifuge is operated by an electric motor.

Usages of a Centrifuge

The centrifuge has vast applications in genetic engineering, medicine, chemistry, pharmacology,  microbiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, analytical chemistry, pathology, biotechnology, physiology and other related areas. 

Types of Centrifuges

The types of the centrifuge are discussed in the below table:

What is Centrifugation?

Centrifugation is a process in which mixtures are separated by utilizing centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is generated by a centrifugal machine or centrifuge when a sample is allowed to rotate. 

Centrifugal Force

A centrifugal force is a force (pseudo) experienced by an object moving in a curvilinear path. It is an apparent force. Centrifugal force acts outwards and against the centre of rotation. The concept of centrifugal force is applied in centrifuges and other similar rotating devices.

Types of Centrifugation

What are the Applications of Centrifugation?

Application of centrifugation involves

• Separation of two miscible substances
• Analysing hydrodynamic macromolecular properties
• Fractioning of subcellular organelles such as membranes
• Fractioning of membrane vesicles
• Separation of chalk powder from water
• Removal of fat and cream from milk to form low-fat milk
• Separation of particles from the air by employing cyclonic separation
• Clarifying & stabilization of wine
• Separation of physiological components such as urine components, blood components in forensic laboratories
• Separation of proteins 

Examples of centrifugation

Some common examples of centrifugation are:

• Centrifugal separation of components of urine, blood and other physiological fluids in pathology labs
• Sludge dewatering in waste treatment
• Cyclonic separation of gaseous components without using filters.
• The process of draining and washing clothes in a washing machine

Principle of Centrifugation

When suspended in a liquid, objects with greater density tend to sink while those with lower densities rise to the surface. As the density gradient widens, the rate of travel quickens. A centrifuge is a device used to apply a strong force perpendicular to the spin axis of an object while it rotates around a fixed axis. Centrifugal force is the term for this pushing outward force. More massive particles scatter outward, whereas less massive ones shift inward and cluster.

Factors that influence Centrifugation

Centrifugation is influenced by a number of factors such as: 

• Densities of solution
• Densities of components of solution
• Temperature 
• Viscosity of sample
• Distance of particle displacement
• Speed or rotation

Summary 

Separating substances by centrifugation is a common laboratory procedure for scientists and engineers. Using centrifugation effectively requires the use of specialised equipment called centrifuges. The solution mixture, process temperature, process type, and separation goal all play a role in choosing the appropriate centrifuge. All centrifuges work on the same basic concept, which is the use of centrifugal force. The use of centrifugation and centrifuges is not restricted to the laboratory; they also have practical applications in the dairy industry, the paint industry, waste management plants, etc. Classical centrifuges from decades past are still in use today.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the difference between centrifugation and filtration?

Ans: Centrifugation and filtration are both methods of separating particles from a solution. The main difference between the two is that centrifugation uses centrifugal force to separate particles, while filtration uses a filter to separate particles. 

2. How can the efficiency of centrifugation be improved?

Ans: The efficiency of centrifugation can be improved by using the correct rotor speed, using the correct centrifuge tube size, and using the correct centrifuge tube material.

3. What is centrifugal distillation?

Ans: Centrifugal distillation uses a combination of centrifugal force and evaporation and condensation to separate particles.

Introduction

Everything in the universe exerts an attractive force on matter around it, which is where the concept of gravitational force comes in. Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces of nature, with the other three being strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force, and the electromagnetic force.

Strong nuclear force is a very short range force that is experienced by nucleons inside whereas charged particles interact via the electromagnetic interaction. Magnetic force is a part of electromagnetic force and we will discuss it here.

Magnet

A material that exerts magnetic force is termed as a magnet. Some elements possess this behaviour naturally, while others can get magnetised when brought inside a magnetic field. This phenomenon is referred to as magnetism and a large number of magnetic materials exist in nature.

Broadly, such materials are classified into three types, which include diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic materials. At the same time, magnets themselves can be classified into the following:

• There are some materials which exhibit magnetic behaviour and retain magnetic properties over a long period of time. Common examples include iron, nickel, cobalt, etc. and these are classified as permanent magnets. Their magnetic properties are strong.
• Temporary magnets are materials with weak magnetic properties that cannot retain their magnetism. This includes soft iron or steel. 
• Electromagnets are simply materials or circuits that develop a magnetic field when an electric current is passed through them. 

The Bar Magnet

Naturally occurring magnets are irregularly shaped and do not have strong magnetic properties. Using specific ferromagnetic materials, we can construct strong magnets in the shape of a bar, which is what is known as a bar magnet.

            

A bar magnet

Field lines of bar magnets

All magnets have two poles, which are labelled as the south and north poles. One single pole of a magnet cannot exist and the poles are named south and north because of the direction they point if suspended freely. The magnetic field lines or lines of force originate at the north pole and form closed loops to the south pole. Inside the magnet, they go from south to north pole. The magnetic field is the property by virtue of which, a magnet can exert magnetic force on materials around it.

Types of Bar Magnet/ Rectangular Magnet

Bar magnets themselves are further divided into cylindrical and rectangular types. Generally speaking, when we refer to the bar of a material, we expect its length to be much higher than its width, which is true for all bar magnets. However, a bar magnet may also be shaped in the form of a cylinder, giving rise to a cylindrical magnet. This is formed by using a polished, curved surface instead of a rectangular one as in the case of a rectangular bar magnet.

Cylindrical bar magnet

Rectangular bar magnet

Properties of Bar Magnet

1. Like all magnets, bar magnets have a north and south pole, which exist even when the magnet is cut in half. We only end up with two magnets instead of one.
2. Like all magnets, opposite poles of a bar magnet attract while similar poles repel.
3. Bar magnets are designed from materials that can remain magnetised for a long period of time.
4. They attract other ferromagnetic materials.
5. The strength of a bar magnet is higher near the poles than at the centre.

Magnetic Field Lines

The strength and impact of a magnetic material may be determined pictorially via the magnetic field lines. The magnetic field is a vector quantity by virtue of which, magnets can exert magnetic force. Field lines are used to visually represent the magnetic field.

Properties of Magnetic Lines

1. Magnetic field lines can never intersect.
2. Field lines start go from north to south outside the magnet and vice versa inside.
3. Magnetic field lines always form closed loops.
4. The density of magnetic field lines represents the strength of the magnetic field.

Field lines of bar magnet

Pole Strength

Pole strength, represented by m, represent the strength by which materials get attracted to a magnet. We can calculate the Magnetic moment M of a magnet by multiplying its pole strength with its length. The pole strength is measured in A m.

Alnico and Neodymium Bar magnet

Alnico Bar Magnet: Alnico magnets are created by combining Aluminum (Al), Nickel (Ni), and Cobalt (Co) to form a powerful magnet. These magnets are ideal for high-temperature applications and are sold under various names such as Alcomax, Hycomax, Alnico 5, and Alnico 8. They are highly resistant to corrosion and can be cast into complex shapes and larger sizes and at the same time, they prove cost effective as well.

Neodymium Bar magnet: A neodymium bar magnet, also known as a rare earth magnet, has a powerful magnetic field and is available in various sizes. It is composed of neodymium (Nd), iron (Fe), boron (B), and varying amounts of dysprosium and praseodymium. This type of magnet is the strongest of all known magnetic materials. However, it is best suited for use in low-temperature environments and requires a coating to prevent corrosion. Due to the expensive cost of its raw materials, neodymium bar magnets are highly expensive.

Summary

Magnets are materials that have the ability to attract iron, steel, and other such materials towards themselves. One type of magnet is the bar magnet, which is shaped like a bar and is comparatively stronger than naturally occuring magnets. Today, Alnico and Neodymium magnets are two of the strongest permanent magnets used in different settings and a large number of other magnets have also been created for use in various types of situations.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the need for horseshoe-type magnets?

A horseshoe magnet is designed in the shape of a U, which makes it more powerful than other magnets due to the concentration of magnetic field lines at its poles. Because the two poles of a horseshoe magnet are aligned in the same direction, their strength is significantly stronger than other magnets. This makes them suitable for lifting heavy objects.

2. Why do the same poles repel each other and different poles attract each other?

This is a natural property of magnets that may be understood by their field lines. Field lines originate at the north pole and end at the south pole. Thus, when similar poles are brought together, the tendency to form closed loops is disturbed, which results in repulsion.

3. Our earth is like a bar magnet. Explain.

Our Earth behaves like a bar magnet whose field extends thousands of kilometres into space, though it is not very strong.

Earth as a bar magnet

This magnetism is developed in the earth’s core due to the convection current of molten iron and nickel. These particles are charged and thus, constitute a magnetic field

4. State right-hand thumb rule.

The right-hand thumb rule can help us obtain the direction of a magnetic field caused by a current-carrying wire. If we align our thumb along the direction of flow of current, then our fingers curl in the direction of the magnetic field.

5. What are electromagnets?

Electromagnets are created by passing a current through certain current elements like coils or wires. They only remain magnetized as long as the current flows and their strength depends upon the current passed.

Introduction

The frustum is made up of a combination of solids. The volume of frustum means the space required by the frustum. In the previous tutorial, we have seen that the volume of a combined solid is equal to the summation of the volume of individual solids. In this tutorial, we will learn the basic structure, properties, and formula to determine the frustum volume with solved examples.

What is Frustum?

The word “frustum” originated from the Latin word “morsel”.  The frustum is a portion of a pyramid or a cone, which lies between one or two parallel planes cutting this. Consider a cone cut into two parts by a plane (parallel to the base). The base faces look like polygonal shapes, and the side faces look like trapezoidal shapes. The portion between the baseline and the parallel plain is known as a frustum (as shown in the figure). It is also known as a truncated cone. If the side lengths of the frustum are of equal length, then it is known as a uniform prism. The real-life examples of the frustum include drinking glasses, pyramids, buckets, some space capsules, etc. 

What is the Volume of a Frustum?

The volume of the frustum is defined as the space occupied by the object (frustum). The unit of volume of a frustum is generally expressed in \(c{m^3}{\mkern 1mu} {\rm{,}}{m^3}{\mkern 1mu} or{\rm{,}}i{n^3}\). The volume of any frustum can be determined if the height and the area of the two bases are known to us. Hence, the following formula can be used to evaluate the volume of a frustum of any shape.

where V and H are the volume and height of any frustum, respectively. In addition, \({A_1}\ and  \({A_2}\ refer to the area of two bases of the frustum.

where R = Radius of the lower base of the frustum

            r = Radius of the upper base of the frustum 

            h = Distance from upper base to the apex of the cone 

Let’s derive the above formula by two methods.

Method 1:

We can observe that the bases (lower and upper) of the frustum are of circular shapes.

Method 2:

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Solved Examples

Example 1:

The side length of the bases of a frustum are 9 cm and 4 cm. Both bases are square. The height of the frustum is 6 cm. Find the volume of the frustum.

Solution:

Example 2:

The height and radius of the large base of a frustum are 15 cm and 5 cm, respectively. The radius of the small base is 2.5 cm. Evaluate the volume of the frustum.

Solution:

Summary

The present tutorial gives a brief introduction about the volume of a frustum. The basic definition of the frustum and some real-life examples are illustrated. In addition, the formulae and their derivation to determine the volume of a frustum have been depicted in this tutorial. Moreover, some solved examples have been provided for better clarity of this concept. In conclusion, the present tutorial may be useful for understanding the basic concept of the volume of a frustum.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What do you mean by the frustum of a cone?

If a cone is cut into two parts by a horizontal plane, then the lower part of the cone (opposite to the apex) is known as the frustum of a cone.

2. What is the formula to determine the curved surface area of the frustum?

The curved surface area of the frustum can be determined by using the following formula. 

3. What are the possible shapes of the base of the frustum?

The base of the frustum can be of any shape. They may be of square, rectangular, or circular shape.

4. Give some examples of the frustum.

Some real-life examples of frustum include table lamps, buckets, glasses, glass tumblers, etc.

5. What are the properties of a frustum?

The properties of a frustum are summarized below.

• The height of a frustum is the perpendicular distance between the two bases.
• Each element of a frustum of a cone is similar to the original cone. 

Also Read:
Volume of Cube
Volume of a Pyramid

Introduction

There are many geometrical solids around us. For example, two kids are playing board games using dice & coins. One boy is trying to solve Rubik’s cube. One thing that is common in the above examples is that these objects are in the shape of cubes. In this tutorial, we are going to discuss the topic of cubes & volume of a cube. A cube is a three-dimensional solid object having equal sides & faces. A cube has six faces, twelve edges & vertices. It is also known as the regular hexahedron or square prism. Volume of a cube is the amount of space occupied by the cube. It is one of the essential & fundamental concepts in geometry. The concept of the volume of a cube is majorly used for finding the capacity of a cubical tank.

What is a cube?

A cube is a symmetrical three-dimensional solid object bounded by six faces, facets or sides with three meeting at the point or corner known as the vertex. The cube has six faces, twelve edges & eight vertices. The dimensions of a cube are the same. It is also known as the regular hexahedron or square prism. Cube is a platonic solid (solid having congruent faces.)

The above figure represents a cube. Dice, ice cubes & Rubik’s cubes are some real-life examples of cubes. 

Some properties of the cube :

• A cube has 12 edges, 6 faces & 8 vertices. Faces of the cubes are square, therefore length, breadth & height of the cubes are equal.
• The angles between any edges & faces are \({90^0}\).
• The opposite planes or faces are parallel to each other.
• Three edges & three planes meet at each vertex of the cube.

What is volume of cube ?

The volume of a cube is a three-dimensional space occupied by the cube. For computing, the volume of the cube has two different formulas depending upon different parameters. By knowing the length of an edge of the cube we can calculate the volume of a cube. Also, the volume of a cube can be calculated by using a length of a diagonal. the volume of a cube is expressed in cubic units. Most of the time volume of cubes is expressed in SI units  \({m^3}\) in CGS units, \({cm^3}\) & litre.

Volume of a cube can be calculated by using two methods :

1) By using edge length 

2) By using diagonal

1) By using edge length

The volume of a cube having edge length ‘l’ can be calculated as 

Volume of a cube = length x breadth x height

 \(\begin{array}{l} = l \times l \times l\\ = {a^3}\end{array}\)

Derivation for a volume of a cube:

Consider a square sheet. The area of a sheet will be taken as surface area, the area of a sheet is length x breadth.

As the sheet is square. It has equal length & breadth, therefore the surface area will be \({a^2}\).

By stacking multiple sheets on top of each other square can be formed so that we will get height ‘a’ of a cube. 

Now, we can conclude as the overall area covered by the cube will be the area of the base multiplied by the height.

So, the volume of a cube \( = {a^2} \times a = {a^3}\)

So here we can conclude as the Volume of the cube \( = {\left( {side} \right)^3} \)

For example, the Volume of a cube having a side of 3 m can be calculated as  

             \( = {\left( {side} \right)^3} = {\left( 3 \right)^3} = 27{m^3}\)

2) By using diagonal 

Volume of a cube can be calculated by using a formula,

Volume of a cube \( = \frac{{\sqrt 3  \times {d^3}}}{9}\)

Here d is the diagonal of the cube 

For example, Length of a diagonal is 3 cm, then the volume of the cube will be

\[ = \frac{{\sqrt 3  \times {d^3}}}{9} = \frac{{\sqrt 3  \times {{\left( 3 \right)}^3}}}{9} = 3\sqrt 3 c{m^3}\]

Some other important formulae of a cube:

i)Total surface area of the cube =\(6{l^2}\) units

ii)Lateral surface area of the cube =\(4{l^2}\) units

Also Read: how to calculate volume of cuboid
                  how to find the volume of a sphere

Solved examples:

Q 1) Calculate the volume of a cube if the edge length of a cube is 

i) 9 cm

ii) 5.2 cm

 iii) 7.5 cm

   ii) 5.2 cm

 iii) 7.5 cm

Q 2) Calculate the edge length of a cube if the volume of the cube is

Q 3) Compute the volume of a cube which has a total surface area of 661.5 sq. cm.

Solution: Here, the total surface area = 661.5 sq. cm and the volume of a cube =?

Using the formula for the total surface area of a cube,

Q 4) Calculate the volume of the cube having a diagonal of 5 units.

Solution: Here length of a diagonal = 5 units 

Volume of a cube by a diagonal formula is given as,

Therefore, the volume of the cube is 24.05 cubic units

Word problems :

1) A cubical tank can store 1331000 ml of water. Then compute the side of the tank in cm.

Solution: Volume of a tank = 1331000 ml

2) Calculate the number of cubes when we cut a cube with an edge of 27 cm into cubes having an edge length of 3 cm?

Summary :

In this tutorial, we have learned about cubes & how to calculate the volume of cubes. A cube is a three-dimensional solid object having equal faces & edge lengths. Volume of a cube is a space occupied by a cube. Rubik’s cube, cubical tank, cubical box, and dice are some real-life examples of cubes. The volume of a cube can be calculated by two methods. The first is by using the edge length formula & by using the diagonal formula. This concept has wide application in real life. The concept of the volume of a cube is mainly used to determine the capacity of a cubical tank & find the side of a tank. This tutorial will surely help you to understand cubes & volume of cubes.

 

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. Why cube is known as a regular hexahedron?

Ans. A regular hexahedron is a 3D solid object having six congruent faces. Cube has six congruent faces, therefore cube is known as the regular hexahedron.

2. State the difference between cube & cuboid?

Ans. A cube is a three-dimensional solid object having all square faces whereas a cuboid is a three-dimensional object having all rectangle faces.

3. Can a prism be a cube?

Ans. A cube is a prism because a cube is considered one of the platonic solids.

4. State the difference between the surface area & lateral surface area of a cube?

Ans. For the calculating surface area of a cube sum of the area of all faces is taken whereas for calculating lateral surface area sum of only four surfaces is taken.

i)Total surface area of the cube = \(6{l^2}\) units

ii)Lateral surface area of the cube =  \(4{l^2}\) units

5. Explain what is net of a cube is?

Ans. The net of a cube is formed when the square faces of the cube are flattened by separating at the edges to form a 2D figure. Through that figure, we can see six faces of the cube.

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Introduction

When Akbar passed away in 1605CE, his remarkable forty-nine-year rule came to an end. Salim or Jahangir, Akbar’s son, rose up in rebellion during the latter years of his father’s reign in the seventeenth century but was eventually caught. But Akbar forgiven him, and Jahangir governed from 1605 CE to 1627 CE after being recognized as the throne’s rightful ruler. The heritage of the Mughals was then carried by Jahangir. The Mughal kingdom flourished after Jahangir’s death under the rule of Shajahan and then Aurangzeb. After Aurangzeb’s passing in the early eighteenth century, under the later feeble Mughals, the Mughal Empire began to fall. 

Influence of  Mughals in the latter half of the seventeenth century

The Mughals were a very strong group in the seventeenth century due to their control over nearly the entire Indian subcontinent and the immense riches and resources they commanded. Additionally, the kings who presided over the kingdom during this time were among its strongmen. These emperors, like Jahangir, Shahjahan, and Akbar, expanded the kingdom over a vast area of land with their wise policies.

The Rulers of the Mughal Dynasty from Babur to Aurangzeb, with their Ancestor Timur

Salient aspects of the Mughal Empire in the seventeenth century

In the seventeenth century, the Mughal Empire was renowned for:

• Salim, the oldest son of Akbar, became emperor of the Mughals in 1605 CE and adopted the name Jahangir. Most of Akbar’s strategies were maintained by him. His “Golden Chain of Justice,” which allowed the populace to address their problems with him, was his most well-known accomplishment.
• Many European trading companies, including Dutch, Portuguese, and English ones, started to travel to India to develop their trade relations during Jahangir’s rule.
• Shahryar took over as emperor of the Mughals after Jahangir died.(son-in-law of Nur Jahan). He was however murdered by Shahjahan.
• In 1658 CE, Aurangzeb replaced Shahjahan as the monarch. The Mughal Empire included nearly the entire Indian peninsula during his reign, from Chittagong in the east to Kashmir in the north. Other areas included the Hindu Kush in the west and Karnataka in the south. Due to his ineffective managerial practices, the empire’s size could not be maintained.
• The Mughal Empire maintained its strength throughout the seventeenth century under strong leaders. But by the end of the seventeenth century, it started to deteriorate as a result of Aurangzeb’s policies and the ineffectiveness of later, less powerful Mughals who were unable to uphold the Empire as effectively as the earlier ones. 

The decline of the Mughal Dynasty

The Mughal Empire started to deteriorate under Aurangzeb’s rule. Many people felt isolated by his policies, which opened the door for their uprisings. The high level of taxes placed on farmers, which made their circumstances worse, hurt the industry as well. Due to Aurangzeb’s successors’ incompetence and weakness, the quality of Mughal authority continued to deteriorate even after his passing. The nobility, on the other hand, increasingly began to challenge Mughal rule as they grew in strength. Finally, taking advantage of all of these factors, foreign invaders began conquering the Mughal kingdom, and at the same time, foreign trading companies started participating in Mughal government problems.

Summary

Babur established the vast Mughal Empire in 1526 CE, and it flourished until the seventeenth century under the competent rule of Mughals like Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan, and Aurangzeb. With the entire subcontinent under its control, the kingdom attained its considerable geographical expanse. However, after the seventeenth century, it began to deteriorate because of the feeble and incompetent Mughals who followed Aurangzeb. With the rise to dominance of the regional kingdoms and the English East India company in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the Mughal Empire gradually collapsed.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What exactly was the “Golden Chain of Justice”?

The “chain of Justice” was established by Jahangir. If any official in Jahangir’s government were to engage in corruption of any kind, the offended party could instantly and fearlessly ring the bell to draw the Emperor’s immediate notice. The 80-foot-long necklace was constructed entirely of pure gold. It weighed about 100 kilograms and was made up of 60 chimes.

2. Who ruled as Mughal Emperor at the start of the 17th century?

However, the Mughal royal building has on occasion been assigned a date of 1600, during the reign of Akbar, Babur’s grandson. After the passing of Aurangzeb, the last significant monarch, who oversaw the empire’s expansion to its greatest degree during his rule, this imperial organization persisted until 1720.

3. Who made up the Mughal dominant class?

Umara, Mansabdars and jagirdars, and were members of the Mughal elite aristocracy who held prominent positions. The individuals who held key positions in the government.

4. What led to the uprising under Aurangzeb’s rule?

The sikhs were incensed by the guru tegh bahadur’s execution, which led to the formation of the kalsa, an armed alliance headed by guru gobind singh. Revolts were carried out by jats, rajputs, sikhs, and marathas, who also persecuted the mughals. The kingdom was thus diminished.

Introduction

The simplest form in which a number can be written is called standard form. The goal is to simplify number calculations as well as reading and writing. Every mathematical concept, including integers, fractions, equations, and expressions, has a specified standard form. The standard form can be thought of as the most basic approach to represent a mathematical element. Any value between \(1.0\) and \(10.0\) that can be expressed as a decimal number and multiplied by a power of 10 is referred to as being in standard form.

Expressing large numbers in the standard form

The easiest form of decimal numbers to read and write is in standard form. For instance, \(9 \times {10^{ – 3}}\) is the standard form of the decimal number \(0.009\). Very large or very small numbers might be challenging to read or write at times. We therefore use standard form while writing them. Any number can be written in standard form, not just decimals. Some fractions result in decimal numbers with additional digits at the thousandth, hundredth, or tenth places.

In general, we can say that it is the standard form representation of rational numbers. The definition of a rational number is any number that can be written as p/q, where p and q are both integers. As an example, \(1/13,{\rm{ }}4/15,{\rm{ }}8/9\) , etc.

Standard form

In mathematics, the most usual way to represent a specific element is called standard form. Every mathematical concept, including big numbers, small numbers, equations, and lines, has a standard form. Explore this exciting idea of standard form as it relates to many math concepts, including fractions, equations, algebra, slope, and learning the standard from a formula.

Join our online Math tuition to learn more about the topic! Our experienced tutors will provide you with a comprehensive understanding of this fundamental concept, and help you to excel in your exams.

What are standard form

A standard form is a way to express a particular mathematical idea, such as an equation, number, or expression, in prose that follows to a set of rules. The standard form is used to express very big or very small numbers clearly. For instance, \(4,500,000,000\) years is how \(4.5\) billion years is written. As you can see, it is difficult and time-consuming to write a large number like \(4.5\) billion in its number form. There is also a chance that we may write a few of more or less than necessary. It is quite beneficial in this situation to write the number in standard form. For instance, \(4,500,000,000\) in standard form equals  \(4.5 \times {10^9}\) . Additionally to integers, other mathematical constructs like fractions, equations, expressions, and polynomials can.

Standard form of a number

Writing a very large or extremely small number using powers of \(10\)  multiplied by values between  \(1\)  and \(10\) is known as scientific notation. 3890, for instance, can be written as \(3.89 \times {10^3}\) . Use positive powers of \(10\)  to express these values, which are bigger than \(1\) . The negative power of ten is used for numbers lower than one. For instance, \(0.0451\) may be expressed as \(4.51 \times {10^{ – 2}}\).

Express the following numbers in standard form

(1.) \(0.0000000000069\)

\( = \frac{{69}}{{10000000000000}}\)

\( = \frac{{69}}{{{{10}^{13}}}} = 69 \times {10^{ – 13}}\)

\( = 6.9 \times 10 \times {10^{ – 13}}\)

\( = 6.9 \times {10^{ – 12}}\)

(2.) \(90000000\)

\(\; = 9 \times {10^7}\)

(3.)  \(2650000000\)

\(\; = 2.65 \times {10^9}\)

How to write numbers in standard form 

The stages to writing a number in its standard form are as follows:

Step 1: Write the first digit of the supplied number in step one.

Step 2: After the first number, add the decimal point.

Step 3: Next, count how many digits there are in the supplied number after the first one and express that number as a power of \(10\) .

For instance, the number is \(52300000000\) . Thus, the following is how a number is represented in standard form:

The initial number is \(5\) .

Step 2: Input the decimal point to make \(5\) into “\(5\)”.

Step 3: There are \(10\) digits after the number \(5\) .

Consequently, \(5.23 \times {10^{10}}\) is the conventional form of \(52300000000\) .

Express the following numbers in usual form

Shift the decimal to the left by the number of places equal to the power of  \(10\) to convert a smaller number (negative powers of \(10\) ) to its standard form. The decimal point must be moved to the right by the number of places equal to the power of 10 in order to change a large number (positive powers of \(10\) ) to its basic format.

4. \(4.5{\rm{ }} \times {10^5} = {\rm{ }}450000\)
5. \(7.8 \times {10^6} = 7800000\)
6. \(9.7 \times 109 = 9700000000\)

Standard form definition 

A standard form is a way to express mathematical ideas like an equation, an expression, or some numbers. Example 2,500,000,000 years is the same as \(2.5\) billion years. As you can see, it is challenging and time-consuming to read or write a large number like \(2.5\) billion. Therefore, we utilize the standard form to precisely write large or tiny integers.

Solved examples 

Example 1: Use an exponential function to represent the separation between the Earth and the Sun.

Answer: The Earth’s distance from the Sun is \(1496000000km\) .

Therefore,

\(1496000000Km{\rm{ }} = 1.496 \times 109Km\)

Example 2: Use the conventional form to describe the size of blood cells.

Answer: Human blood cells typically measure \(0.000015\) m in size.

Therefore,

\(0.000015 = 1.5 \times {10^{ – 5}}m\)

Example 3.Write \(3253\) in standard form.

Answer: \(3.253 \times 1000\) can be used to represent the number 3253. The standard form of 3253 is \(3.253 \times {10^3}\) .

Conclusion

Technically speaking, large numbers are defined as those that are greater than those observed frequently. Large numbers in the number system are those that are typically bigger or greater than the other numbers. For instance, large figures like 1 lakh, 1 million, 1 billion, etc. are not ones we use frequently. In essence, standard form is used to indicate these large integers.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the canonical form of a number?

Ans. The canonical form of a number is a way of writing numbers in a form

That follows certain rules. Numbers that can be written as decimal numbers

Between 1.0 and 10.0 multiplied by powers of 10 are called canonical forms.

2. What is the standard form of a decimal number?

Ans. The standard form of a decimal number is the representation of a given Decimal number raised to the tenth power in order to simplify to the original Value.

3. Are the standard form and the standard notation of decimal numbers the Same?

Ans. The standard form is also called the standard notation. So, both are the

Same.

Introduction

When it comes to preventing and solving crimes, forensic science is invaluable. It’s utilized as evidence in court to help determine a defendant’s guilt or innocence and to help identify potential perpetrators. From the time the first fingerprint was used to identify a suspect in a murder in the 19th century, forensic science has played a role in the resolution of homicides. A lot of different tools and methods have been added to the field since then. DNA analysis, fingerprinting, ballistics, and toxicology are just a few of the methods used by modern forensic scientists to examine physical evidence.

What is Forensic Chemistry?

Forensic Chemistry would seem to be a branch of chemical sciences that thus combines chemical as well as toxicological techniques to detect unknown factors in such a crime scene. The tests have been performed by forensic chemists, who are experts in their field. To achieve goals, these professionals adopt a variety of tactics as well as techniques. 

What Does a Forensic Chemist do?

It is the job of a forensic chemist, who typically works in such a lab, to analyze evidence found at a crime scene. Investigators are hired by both the government and commercial firms. The samples are collected by the detectives or investigators and then sent to the forensic chemist for analysis. They need to be well-versed in both Organic and Particle Physics. Scientists utilize organic chemistry to analyze body samples for DNA and toxicants.

Role of a Forensic Chemist

A Forensic Chemist’s primary responsibility is to gather substances identified at a crime site and further analyze them to determine how they correlate to the crime. Forensic chemists combine chemistry, physics, as well as biology to discover compounds that could aid in the prosecution of a crime. Their job involves tracing chemicals, narcotics, as well as other substances, and even using methods such as spectroscopy, and chromatography, with the usage of infrared as well as ultraviolet lamps to locate evidence. Most of the samples recovered at crime scenes are retained, but if necessary, testing is performed on them.

Methods used in Forensic Chemistry

Chromatography: Some compounds are unknown but must be disassembled into individual elements for study. Chromatography is indeed the technique of separating the elements of any mixture. The mixture would be first dispersed in a material termed the mobile phase. The mobile phase can then be mixed with the second material, termed the stationary phase, as well as the mixture, which has been separated into two or more substances. It is widely used in investigations involving poisoning, explosives, and so on.

Spectroscopy: It is a method of detecting evidence used within forensic chemistry. This is primarily dependent on both absorptions as well as the emission of light or even radiation by materials as the wavelength of such radiation changes. This even relates to the collisions of electrons, protons, as well as ions.  This procedure is often performed to assess blood toxicity.

Spectroscopy Mechanism

Why a Forensic Chemistry Degree?

After completing their degree, forensic chemists could pursue a variety of careers, including:

• Chemical analyst
• Scientist in Biomedicine
• Investigator at a crime site
• Detective
• Forensic Scientist
• Technician in a scientific laboratory
• Toxicologist
• Secondary school instructor
• Computer forensic specialist
• Officer of the Border Force
• Science professor

Tips to Prepare for Forensic Chemistry

1. Take courses in chemistry, biology, and physics: A strong foundation in these three sciences is essential for success in forensic chemistry.
2. Develop strong laboratory skills: Forensic chemists must be able to accurately and precisely measure, analyze, and interpret data. 
3. Become familiar with the legal system: Understanding the legal system and the role of forensic chemists in it is essential for success in the field. 
4. Learn about the different types of evidence: Forensic chemists must be familiar with the different types of evidence that can be used in criminal investigations. 
5. Develop strong problem-solving skills: Forensic chemists must be able to think critically and solve complex problems. 
6. Become familiar with the latest technology: Forensic chemists must be able to use the latest technology to analyze evidence. 
7. Develop strong communication skills: Forensic chemists must be able to effectively communicate their findings to other professionals. 
8. Get experience in the field: Internships and volunteer opportunities can provide valuable experience in the field of forensic chemistry.

Summary

Forensic Chemistry is a subfield of forensic science. This is an example of chemists’ helping police with their investigations. It really is that important to the study as a whole. A Forensic Chemist is an expert in detecting and analysing substances found at a crime scene using a variety of Forensic Chemistry techniques. If they come upon anything useful, they’ll report it to the detective. Forensic science appears to rely primarily on spectroscopy and chromatography as its primary methods.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What type of chemical is utilized in fingerprinting?

To expose or even gather fingerprints, forensics experts use four basic chemicals: silver nitrate, ninhydrin, cyanoacrylate, as well as iodine. Certain chemicals react to elements within fingerprint, including oil as well as perspiration, changing the colour of the print and therefore, allowing experts to see it better.

2. What methods do forensic scientists use to examine drugs?

In most cases, forensic drug testing is conducted in 2 stages: screening as well as confirmation. When drugs are found via screening, such as spot test kits, samples have been collected and then forwarded to labs for confirmation testing.

3.Who is considered the father of forensic chemistry?

The “Father of Toxicology,” Mathieu Joseph Bonaventure Orfila (1787-1853), was the very first prominent nineteenth-century pioneer of forensic science. He tried to form chemical analysis, a common aspect of forensic medicine, but also researched asphyxiation, body decomposition, as well as exhumation.