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Introduction 

Shakespeare is universally regarded as the greatest English language author and the pinnacle of dramatic art. The “Bard of Avon” and “England’s National Poet” are two of his other nicknames. Around 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two substantial narrative poems, and a few more verses, the authorship of which is disputed by some, are attributed to him.

William Shakespeare

His Life, Career and Marriage.

The term “The Bard” is commonly used to refer to William Shakespeare. Throughout the Elizabethan era, Shakespeare penned a number of plays that have become literary masterpieces and are still performed and studied today. Many believe him to be among the finest speakers of the English language due to his ability to create new words, understand humour, and masterfully employ sarcasm and puns.

Shakespeare wed Anne Hathaway at age 18 while they were both very young. She was eight years older than him at the time. They had three children: the identical twins Hamnet and Judith, and Susanna. His life’s story grew even more mysterious following his marriage. It is believed that he spent the most of his time in London, where he wrote and directed his plays. He started a successful acting career in London between the years 1585 and 1592. Formerly known as the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, he eventually became the group’s writer and co-owner under the stage name the King’s Men.

Death and retirement

Aged 59 after shifting to Stratford, where he retired around 1613, and died there three years later. Shakespeare’s personal life is not well documented. On April 23, 1616, he passed away at the age of 52. He signed his will and declared that he was in “great health” at the time, but he died a month later.. 

His Career

Due to the lack of precise records being kept in the 1500s moreover William Shakespeare wasn’t as well-known back then as he is now, therefore earlier material is less accessible. 

Shakespeare’s most well-known works were created in 1589 and 1613. His early pieces, which were primarily comedies and histories, are still recognised as some of the best in their respective categories. Up until around 1608, most of his works were tragedies, among them Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, which are regarded as some of the best in the English language. In his final period, he cooperated with other playwrights and composed tragicomedies, also referred to as romances.

According to several academics, Hamnet’s passing was a pivotal moment for Shakespeare and served as the model for the character of Hamlet in his well-known play.

Works by Shakespeare: Plays

William Shakespeare moved to London not long after the birth of his children, and he quickly rose to prominence there as a playwright within the span of just seven years. Even after the group changed its name to The Kings Men, Shakespeare maintained his loyalty to them throughout his career.

The original location for staging Shakespeare’s plays was the James Burbage Theater. At the original Theatre, the seats were on the stage. After losing the Theatre’s lease, Burbage asked Shakespeare and his company to help fund his next construction endeavour, The Globe.

The Globe, an outdoor theatre with a circular design and many levels of seats, regularly staged performances of Shakespeare’s plays. In the cheapest section, which had no seats, prices were very low. The wealthy and royalty sat on the third and second levels to see shows. The performance at the Globe was special since it made use of natural light and had fewer sets than usual. No one was wounded when a fire broke out during a performance of Henry VIII at the Globe Theater in 1613. The next year, construction began on the new Globe. The original Globe was destroyed in 1644, but a 1997 copy is still welcoming visitors today.

Conclusion

Shakespeare’s plays are still widely read today and are frequently performed, researched, and reinterpreted in many social, cultural, and political contexts around the globe. Shakespeare bequeathed his eldest daughter Susanna the majority of his sizable assets in his testament.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is regarded as William Shakespeare’s life’s work?

Ans. From there on, up until 1608, Shakespeare primarily produced tragedies, some of the best in the English language being Romeo and Juliet, Othello, Hamlet, King Lear, and Macbeth. In the latter part of his life, he cooperated with other authors and penned tragicomedies, often known as romances.

2 How was Shakespeare related tp Globe theatre?

Ans. He started writing plays and performing for the Lord Chamberlain’s Men in 1594. When James I became its patron, the group’s name was changed to the King’s Men, and he eventually became its resident playwright. In 1599, he co founded the renowned Globe theatre with other members.

3. Why is Shakespeare’s writing significant?

Ans. Shakespeare’s writing style developed independently of the prevailing fashion at the time. Shakespeare used an extremely stylized kind of metre called iambic pentameter, which has ten syllables each phrase with each unstressed syllable being followed by a stressed syllable.

Introduction 

Throughout the nineteenth century, Charles Dickens, a British editor and writer, released a wide variety of works, including novels, short stories, comic books, and novellas. To break into the publishing industry, Dickens created his own self-published drawings and humorous comics for periodicals. His dark portrayals of London’s poor in the Victorian era are famous for highlighting economic inequality and stimulating discussion amongst readers.

Charles Dickens

Early Life

When Dickens was young, he moved away from Portsmouth. His boyhood years in Chatham (1817-22) were the happiest, and he often wrote about the town. From 1822 to 1860, he called London home. In 1860, he made the permanent move to Gad’s Hill, a rural house not far from Chatham. One of his grandfathers was a criminal, and the other had worked as a domestic worker, but together they had built a middle-class status for themselves just recently.

Charles Dickens’ father had a solid income as a clerk, but he was a constant source of contention for his family. As Charles’s father was in jail for debt, the family was unable to afford for him to continue school, thus Charles was kicked out and sent to do physical labour in a factory in 1824. These kinds of shocks did a lot of damage to Charles. He left school for a while when he was 15, but he eventually went back.

He worked as a law firm clerk at first, then as a court shorthand reporter (gaining experience in the legal system that is cited repeatedly in the novels), and finally as a newspaper and legislative reporter, just like other members of his family. Throughout this time, he acquired an intense aversion to authority figures and the law, as well as a deep appreciation for journalism.

Dickens’ Work

Dickens experienced early success; at the age of 25, Pickwick Papers, his debut book, became a bestseller and established him as one of the best authors of the day. Readers anticipated that all of his novels would follow this pattern due to the fact that it is a wildly comic book with almost any shadows.

Many readers and pundits were horrified by Dickens’ progressively pessimistic vision of his social culture and of the essence of man as he aged. It was claimed that “A Tale of Two Cities” contained  little to no comedy.

Dickens took seriously the unfavourable reactions that his darker novels received from readers because he was always worried about making money with his writing. He composed Great Expectations with the intention of addressing their dissatisfaction.

His literary reputation declined after his passing, and his books were no longer considered seriously. George Meredith, a novelist, thought they lacked intelligence:

Dickens’ writings were still widely read, but his reputation as a writer was becoming overshadowed. His books were frequently thought of as being suitable for young readers. From 1880 to the beginning of the 20th century, Russian authors gained popularity and were widely thought to be better than Dickens.

Dickens’ Style

The most influential, Charles Dickens, was an English author of novels during the Victorian era. His work was appealing to both the basic and the sophisticated, earning him a wide following. He became one of the major figures in 19th-century writing because of the breadth, compassion, and intellect of his understanding of society and its flaws.

He wasn’t merely a great comedian; he was also the most humorous English author. His works were supplemented by the breadth, compassion, and intellect of his understanding of his society and the flaws in it, making him one of the major literary figures of the 19th century as well as a powerful representative of his generation’s conscience.

Dickens Influence

Dickens’s writing and serial publication of his books made it even more challenging to meld the diverse a variety of tones and textures he used in each novel, which frequently featured multiple complex plots involving dozens of characters.

Dickens was an expert at using high humour, using satire, puns, wordplay, and an odd way of describing characters that both made fun of his own works and gave them life and personalities of their own.

Dickens worked hard to create books that were both enjoyable and moving. He made a concerted effort—sometimes too much effort—to strike a compelling mix between humour, sorrow and mystery.

Dickens’ visual features not only accurately depict how things appear, but they are frequently rich in symbolic meaning, reflecting underlying realities. Dickens’ deep meaning in his settings and people is missed by those who think of him as being shallow. Dickens also had a great ear for speech patterns; no other writer in the 19th century did a better job of capturing accents and peculiar verbal tics.

Conclusion 

Many of C. Dickens writings are taught to young readers, and his work continues to have an impact on pop culture and literature. Dickens felt novels had a moral purpose—to evoke readers’ inner moral sensibilities and urge righteous behavior—even though he was aware of what his readers wanted and was eager to sell as many of his writings as he could.

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. How did Dickens impact todays literature?

Ans. However, it’s possible that he had the most impact on how widely read novels have become. Dickens’ books were the first “blockbusters” in publishing, and in many respects, he is to blame for the obscene number of novels being released today.

2. How was Tobias Smollet related to Charles Dickens?

Ans. Tobias Smollet, a poet from Scotland and novelist who produced picturesque works like Roderick Random, had an impact on Charles Dickens (Citelighter). Dickens was inspired to concentrate on description as a result.

3. How would you describe Charles Dickens’ writing style?

Ans. Dickens was an expert of great humour, and his techniques included satire, puns, wordplay, and an odd way of describing characters that made fun of his own works while also giving them life and a distinct personality.

Introduction 

Jane Austen entered the world on December 16, 1775, in the little town of Steventon in Hampshire. Being one of an ordained minister’s eight children, she grew up in a loving and supportive family environment. Throughout her adolescent years, she developed a passion for writing. Around 1801, members of her family moved to Bath. Jane, Cassandra, and their sister did a lot of travelling after their parents’ deaths in 1805 before finally settling in Chawton, not far from Steventon.

Jane Austen

In 1811, with the help of Jane’s brother Henry, she published her debut novel, Sense and Sensibility. The prince regent, an avid reader, was honoured with a personal dedication in the book Emma. In order to protect her identity, Jane Austen used pen names for all of her works.

In 1816, Jane first had symptoms, most likely due to Addison’s illness. Her death occurred at Winchester, where she had gone to seek treatment, on July 18th, 1817. Another two works, Persuasion and Northanger Abbey, were published after her death, and a third was never completed.

Biography 

The life that Jane Austen supposedly lived was peaceful. Her sister Cassandra destroyed or heavily altered much of her sister’s correspondence just before she passed away, therefore only a small number of her documents remain today. So what little we know about her is sketchy and incomplete. It is possible to deduce her height, weight, sense of humour, and savviness from the letters that have survived and from her close friends.

Austen’s family members remember her as kind and holy. Those who have read what she wrote and what little of her letters have survived feel she was far more perceptive and insightful than her family ever let on.

Jane Austen was raised in a close-knit household. On December 16th, 1775, she was born in Steventon, Hampshire. Her father was an orphan, but thanks to the generosity of a distant cousin, he was able to complete his education and become a clergyman in the Church of England.

Austen and Cassandra were lifelong companions and best friends.

Austen completed her official schooling but continued her studies at home with the help of her father and brothers owing to financial difficulties. Reading aloud was a common pastime for the Austens. A string of short plays, in which Austen had a hand, resulted. She also satirised well-known plays of the day, such as Love and Friendship and History of England.

When Austen was 20 years old, she began to generate work and concluded what is now known as her First Trilogy.

The Austens were happy at Steventon until her father made the unexpected decision to relocate the family to Bath in 1801.

As her father passed away in 1805, their mother and sisters Jane and Cassandra were left with little income to survive on.

Mansfield Park and Emma were both originally released to the public in 1814. Despite the fact that neither Sense and Sensibility nor Pride and Prejudice were published under Austen’s name, she was already beginning to get some recognition for her work.

She passed away on July 18, 1817, at the age of 41, with her sister Cassandra by her side; when Cassandra inquired if there was anything else she wanted, she replied, “death itself.”

Major Novels

The three early novels by Jane Austen are a separate category in which the humorous depictions of people and society is combined with a strong literary satirical element.

The poor Dashwood sisters are the subject of Sense and Sensibility. Marianne is the sensitivity hero. She develops a crush on the alluring John Willoughby, who, despite appearing to be a romantic partner, is actually a cunning money hunter.

The conflict between Fitzwilliam Darcy, a wealthy and aristocratic landowner, and additionally, the country gentleman’s daughter Elizabeth Bennet is detailed in Pride and Prejudice. One of the most captivating characters in English literature is the witty and vivacious Elizabeth, who was Jane Austen’s personal favourite of all her heroines.

In Northanger Abbey, satires on Gothic horror stories and traditional books about refined society are combined. She is taught not to view the world through the lens of the Gothic thrillers she reads at Northanger Abbey itself.

Mansfield Park is Austen’s most sombre book in terms of tone and consideration of religion and moral accountability.

Emma is the Austen novel with the most consistently comedic tone out of the bunch. Emma Woodhouse, a rich, attractive, and smug young woman who indulges in meddling in and failing to arrange marriages for her friends and neighbours, is the focus of the story.

The novel Persuasion depicts the tale of a second chance,  Captain Frederick Wentworth and Anne Elliot’s romance was rekindled, whom she had been persuaded not to marry seven years before.

Conclusion 

Jane Austen was a famous English author who lived from 1775 to 1817. Her works are known for their serious undercurrents as well as their light sarcasm, humour, and representation of contemporary English rural life. The early 19th-century social satire, as well as Jane Austen’s wit and unique perspective as a woman, propelled her to fame. Her protagonists and the majority of the places included in her works are from the English middle and upper classes.

 

Frequently Asked Questions 

1. What made the readers relate to Jane Austen?

Ans. Jane Austen, an English author, created amazing works of art by writing about ordinary people in ordinary situations in everyday life. Readers are still spellbound by her work because of its economy, accuracy, and wit; the sly, amused pity and she shows compassion for her characters, and her storytelling and characterization skills are excellent.

2. What was Jane Austen’s background like?

Ans. Jane Austen was the seventh child out of eight. Her older sister Cassandra was by far her closest friend throughout her life. Their mother was a witty woman known for her spontaneous poetry and stories, Moreover, their scholar father instilled a passion of learning in them. Acting provided the best family entertainment.

3. Did Jane Austen suffer from any disease?

Ans. There is proof that when Pride and Prejudice, Austen’s second and most well-known book, was released in January 1813, she already had a deadly immunological disorder and lymphoma. Four additional novels would be written or altered in the wake of her deteriorating health.

Introduction 

In Somersby, Lincolnshire which is located in England, on 6th August of 1809, Tennyson was born. He was one of the 11 surviving children in his family. Four younger brothers, four younger sisters, and two elder brothers made up Tennyson’s family when he was a child. Although he had his first publication in 1827, His writing did not appear until the 1840s when he began to regularly get praise from the general audience.

Alfred, Lord Tennyson

Life

Despite the fact that Tennyson’s father was a respectable-paying church rector, Budgeting was necessary due to the size of the household. Tennyson was bullied at Louth Grammar School, thus he only enrolled there for a short time. His well-read father was in charge of the remainder of his pre-university schooling.

The love of reading and writing was instilled in his siblings and himself at a young age, and by the time he was eight, Tennyson was already writing his first poems.

Tennyson’s house wasn’t a cheerful one, though. Resentment was created since his father was an older son and they had lost their inheritance to a younger sibling. And to make matters worse, his drug and alcoholic-addicted father occasionally violently abused family members.

Tennyson’s first piece of writing can be found in Poems by Two Brothers, which was released in 1827. Tennyson started his studies at Cambridge’s Trinity College the same year.There, he enlisted together with his two elder brothers.

Additionally, Tennyson kept up his poetry output, and for the poem “Timbuctoo,” In 1829, he received the Gold Medal of the Chancellor. Poems, Chiefly Lyrical was the title of Tennyson’s debut solo book, which was released in 1830.

In 1831, Tennyson’s dad passed away. Tennyson’s family was put in a difficult situation after his death, and he did not finish his education.

Tennyson received advice on how to start a career as a younger son, perhaps by joining the clergy like his father. The young guy was, however, adamant that poetry would be his primary concentration.

The poet  and his family suffered a terrible loss when Hallam passed away unexpectedly in 1833, most likely from a stroke.

Finally, Tennyson produced a two-volume collection of poems (1842). Tennyson unfortunately lost the most of his investment in a failed wood carving business in 1842.

Tennyson’s next significant composition was the lengthy narrative poem “The Princess” (1847), although “In Memoriam” marked a high point in his career. Readers were immensely impressed, and Tennyson gained a lot of fans.

Tennyson’s poetry was read more and more frequently, which helped him amass a sizable fortune and gain ever-rising levels of fame.

Beginning with Queen Mary in 1874, Tennyson expanded into poetry tragedies (1875). Even while several of his plays were well received on stage, they never had the same resonance as his poems.

Gout was a problem for the poet, and Early in the fall of 1892, it flared up again and got worse.At the end of the year, on October 6, Tennyson passed away in his Surrey home of Aldworth at the age of 83.

Tennyson is once more acknowledged as a talented poet who explored timeless human themes and provided both relief to his audience, however it is unlikely that he will ever again enjoy the kind of praise that he had during his lifetime.

Major Poetic Work

From one piece to the next, Tennyson’s style is very different. He composed both short and long pieces, although a lot of his poetry referenced or was centred on the concept of isolation and ancient mythology.

Due to familial obligations, Tennyson was unable to complete his education, but at the age of 20, He did release his debut solo album. Poems Chiefly Lyrical is a beautiful English moniker for this collection of poems.

Two volumes of Poetry were published by Tennyson in 1842; From the 1832 and 1840 editions, one volume had revised selections., and the second volume contained new poems.

The latest poems were “Morte d’Arthur,” “The Two Voices,” “Locksley Hall,” and “The Vision of Sin,” as well as other works like “The May Queen,” “Lady Clara Vere de Vere,” and “The Lord of Burleigh” that exhibit an odd naiveté. He released The Princess, a unique anti-feminist fantasy, as his first lengthy poem in 1847.

Tennyson’s elegies on Hallam, which he had been writing over time, were offered for publication by Edward Moxon. They initially published under an assumed name as In Memoriam (1850), which was widely acclaimed by critics and the general public, earned him Queen Victoria’s affection, and contributed to his selection as poet laureate the following year.

Although some reviewers at first found it disappointing, Tennyson’s Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington (1852)is the famous poem on the Light Brigade charge at Balaklava, which appeared in Maud and Other Poems in 1855., both served to solidify his status as the nation’s foremost poet.

Tennyson created the well-known short poem “Crossing the Bar” in 1889 while travelling to the Isle of Wight. His drama In 1892, a successful production of The Foresters took place in New York City.

He was able to edit the proofs of his final book, Akbar’s Dream, The Death of Oenone, and Other Poems, despite being in poor health (1892).

 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What ailment did Tennyson have?

Ans. Tennyson’s health started to deteriorate the same year he recorded his final recordings because he contracted a serious rheumatic disease.

2.  What was Alfred Lord Tennyson’s central theme?

Ans. The scandalous past of Tennyson’s family is intriguing in and of itself, but some understanding of it is also necessary to comprehend why themes of miserliness, murder, avarice,  marriages contracted out of business rather than love, and estrangements between families and friends repeatedly appear in his poetry.

3. Who granted Tennyson the title of Lord?

Ans. A courtesy title is awarded to the sons of hereditary peers. The Honourable is the title given to sons of barons, the lowest tier of the peerage. The Hon. Hallam Tennyson was Alfred’s son until Alfred passed away, at which point he was known as Hallam, 2nd Baron Tennyson, Lord Tennyson.

What Are Aldehydes?

Carbon (C) and oxygen (O) form a double bond in aldehyde, making it a carbonyl functional group; carbon (H) and an alkyl group (C=O) form a single bond. As a rule of thumb, aldehyde is denoted as R-CHO. The letter “R” stands for the alkyl group. Carbon (C) is double-bonded to oxygen (O) in all aldehyde chemical compounds, forming the carbonyl group. The prefix “al” is appended to the name of any chemical compound that contains an aldehyde group

What Are Ketones?

A ketone also contains a carbonyl group and is thus a functional group. Here, two alkyl groups (R) are connected by a single bond while the carbonyl carbon (C) is double-bonded to oxygen (O). Ketones are typically written as R-CO-R, where R is an alkyl group. The prefix “one” is added to the name of any compound that contains a ketone group. 

Properties of Ketones 

To put it simply, ketones are liquids at room temperature. Use acetone as an illustration. Ketones have a higher boiling point than aldehydes and alcohols because the carbonyl group they contain exhibits dipolar attraction. The compound’s boiling point rises proportionally with its magnitude. In general, ketones of a lower molecular weight dissolve well in water, but this solubility declines with increasing ketone molecular size.

Properties of Aldehydes

Aldehydes come in a wide range of physical forms. Formaldehyde is one such chemical that, at room temperature, exists in the gaseous state. Formalin is the name given to an aqueous solution of the substance. Most other common aldehydes are liquids at room temperature, however others, depending on the number of alkyl groups, are solids. The lower aldehydes have a strong odour, whereas the higher aldehydes are pleasant, which is why they are used in fragrances. 

Due to the dipolar attraction seen in the polar carbonyl group present in aldehyde, the boiling point of aldehyde is generally high. 

Aldehyde show dissolution in water and other solvents. This is because they have lone pair of electrons in the oxygen (O) of the carbonyl group (C=O) which forms an H- bond with the hydrogen of water. The aldehydes which contain four carbon atoms are generally soluble in water but the solubility of aldehyde in water decreases as the size of the alkyl group increases.

Occurrence Of Ketones And Aldehydes

Many different types of microbes and plants are natural sources of ketones and aldehydes. Examples include cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon bark, citral from lemongrass, vanillin from vanilla bean, carvone from spearmint and caraway, camphor from the camphor tree, and helminthosporal from poisonous fungi, to name a few. Ketones can also be found in animals, such as the muscone found in musk deer, the sex hormones testosterone in males and progesterone in females, and the adrenal hormone cortisone.

Preparation Of Ketones And Aldehydes

Preparation of Aldehyde

Oxidation of primary alcohols: Primary alcohols can be treated with Pyridinium chlorochromate in dichloromethane to form aldehydes.

Dehydrogenation of primary alcohols : Dehydrogenation means the removal of the hydrogen molecule. Primary alcohol undergoes dehydrogenation in the availability of copper forms aldehyde.

From acid chlorides

The reduction of the acid chloride with hydrogen in the availability of palladium catalyst present over barium sulphate with a small quantity of quinoline gives aldehyde. The reaction is said to be Rosenmund’s reaction. 

Preparation from carboxylic acid

When the vapours of carboxylic acid are passed over manganese oxide at 573 K, the aldehyde is produced.  A common example is passing formic through manganese oxide at 573 K to give formaldehyde, carbon dioxide and water.

Preparation from alkenes

Alkenes reacting with ozone in presence of carbon tetrachloride give ozonides which further break down into two molecules of aldehyde in presence of zinc dust and water.

Preparation of ketones

From acid chloride: On reacting with dialkyl cadmium, ketone compound are formed from acid chloride.

Here, acetyl chloride reacting with dimethyl cadmium forms acetone.

From carboxylic acid: When vapours of acetic acid is passed through manganous oxide, acetone is produced.

From alkenes:
2, 3-Dimethylbut-2-ene on ozonolysis gives acetone.

Here, 2, 3-Dimethylbut-2-ene reacting with ozone in presence of carbon tetrachloride gives ozonide which breaks down to acetone.

From akynes:

Propyne reacting with a hydrated mixture of dilute sulphuric acid and mercuric sulphate gives acetaldehyde.

Uses Of Aldehydes And Ketones

Perfumes typically include organic compounds containing aldehyde, such as vanilla, orange rind, rose, and citronella. Because of their pleasant aroma, these chemicals are synthesised in laboratories and used in the creation of perfumes and colognes. Because of its signature scent, benzaldehyde is also a popular ingredient in fragrances.

Aldehydes have several industrial applications, including in the production of chemical compounds, dyes, and resins. Because of its effectiveness as a preservative for biological specimens and its antimicrobial qualities, formaldehyde is often manufactured industrially on a larger scale. The most widely utilised ketone molecule, acetone is primarily employed as a solvent in the production of chemicals like iodoform and iodoform. The nail polish remover contains it.

Formation by Oxidation of Alcohols

Aldehyde: Primary alcohol oxidises of aldehyde in presence of acidified potassium dichromate (\({{\bf{K}}_2}{\bf{C}}{{\bf{r}}_2}{{\bf{O}}_7}\)) or alkaline potassium permanganate (\({\bf{KMn}}{{\bf{o}}_4}\)).

Here, ethyl alcohol oxidises to acetaldehyde.

Ketone: Secondary alcohol on oxidation in presence of acidified potassium dichromate (\({{\bf{K}}_2}{\bf{C}}{{\bf{r}}_2}{{\bf{O}}_7}\)) or alkaline potassium permanganate (\({\bf{KMn}}{{\bf{o}}_4}\)) gives ketone.

Here, isopropyl alcohol is oxidised to acetone.

Formation by Alcohols Dehydrogenation

Aldehyde: Primary alcohol undergoes dehydrogenation in the availability of copper forms aldehyde.

Ethyl alcohol on heating with copper changes to acetaldehyde and hydrogen molecule is removed.

Ketone: Heating of secondary alcohol in presence of reduced Cu at 573 K forms ketone.

Summary

Carbonyl-containing organic substances include aldehydes and ketones. Aldehyde and ketones can be synthesised industrially on a massive scale in addition to being derived naturally from plants and bacteria. Its versatility in application has led to their widespread use. Both chloroform and iodoform require acetone as an input in their production. Dye manufacturing (like malachite green) and chemical synthesis (such benzoic acid and benzoyl chloride) all rely on benzaldehyde. There are a variety of additional organic molecules that can be used as building blocks for making aldehyde and ketones, respectively.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Which test is common for the detection of both aldehyde and ketone groups?

Ans: Both aldehyde and ketone groups give 2, 4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine. When 2,4-DNP or Brady’s reagent is reacted with pure carbonyls, it forms precipitate which is yellow-orange in colour. 

2. What is a Schiff Base?

Ans: A Schiff base is a compound with the general structure R2C=NR’ and is considered as a subclass of imines. Schiff’s test is a chemical test used to check for the presence of aldehydes in a given analyte. 

3. Out of aldehydes and ketones which one is more reactive and why?

Ans: Aldehydes are more reactive towards nucleophilic addition reactions. Since the carbonyl group of ketones is connected to alkyl groups, and the alkyl group has electron donating inductive effect, it increases electron density on carbon of carbonyl group in ketones, making it less electrophilic.

What are Aldehydes?

Carbon in an aldehyde forms double bonds to oxygen and single bonds to hydrogen and an alkyl group, making it a carbonyl functional group.  The letter “R” stands for the alkyl group. Known as the carbonyl group, aldehyde chemical compounds all have a carbon atom double-bonded to oxygen. An aldehyde group’s carbon atom can come from any unsaturated, saturated, or cyclic carbon chain. A carbon atom in an aldehydic molecule will have at least one hydrogen atom attached to it.

Naturally Occurring Aldehydes

Naturally occurring aldehyde compounds are widespread in flora and fauna. Vanillin can be found in vanilla beans and cinnamaldehyde in cinnamon bark. Citral is extracted from lemongrass. 

General Properties Of Aldehydes

Physical State: Aldehydes come in a wide range of physical forms. Formaldehyde is one such chemical that, at room temperature, exists in the gaseous state. Formalin is the name given to an aqueous solution of the substance. Most other common aldehydes are liquids at room temperature, however others, depending on the number of alkyl groups, are solids. The lower aldehydes have a strong odour, whereas the higher aldehydes are pleasant, which is why they are used in fragrances.

Boiling Points:  Due to the dipolar attraction seen in the polar carbonyl group present in aldehyde, the boiling point of aldehyde is generally high. 

Solubility:  Water and other solvents are effective at dissolving aldehyde. The oxygen (O) in the C=O molecule has a lone pair of electrons, so it can form a H bond with the hydrogen in water. In general, aldehydes with four carbon atoms are soluble in water, although the solubility diminishes with increasing alkyl group size.

Uses Of Aldehydes

• Organic compounds like vanilla, orange rind, rose and citronella contain aldehyde. These compounds are created synthetically in laboratories and utilised for the production of perfumes and colognes due to their sweet smell.
• Aldehydes are used for making different organic compounds, dyes, and resins. Formaldehyde is prepared industrially on a larger scale and is used as a preservative for biological specimens and also has antibacterial properties.

Preparation of Aldehydes

There are many preparative methods for aldehydes. A few of them are discussed below.

Oxidation of primary alcohols: Primary alcohols can be treated with Pyridinium chlorochromate in dichloromethane to form aldehydes.

Dehydrogenation of primary alcohols : Dehydrogenation means the removal of the hydrogen molecule. Primary alcohol undergoes dehydrogenation in the availability of copper forms aldehyde.

From acid chlorides

The reduction of the acid chloride with hydrogen in the availability of palladium catalyst present over barium sulphate with a small quantity of quinoline gives aldehyde. The reaction is said as Rosenmund’s reaction. 

Preparation from carboxylic acid

When the vapours of carboxylic acid are passed over manganese oxide at 573 K, the aldehyde is produced.  A common example is passing formic through manganese oxide at 573 K to give formaldehyde, carbon dioxide and water.

Preparation from alkenes

Alkenes reacting with ozone in presence of carbon tetrachloride give ozonides which further break down into two molecules of aldehyde in presence of zinc dust and water.

Nomenclature of Aldehydes

Aldehydes can be identified with the suffix -al, in other words, any hydrocarbon name that ends with the suffix -al is referred to as aldehyde. For example methanal, ethanal, and propanal. The nomenclature of aldehyde is done using the IUPAC naming system. IUPAC stands for International union of pure and applied chemistry. 

1. First, the numbering of carbon atoms starts from the carbonyl carbon. Here, the number of total carbon (C) atoms is three so the hydrocarbon chain is “propane” and the root word is “propan”.
2. As the aldehyde group is present (-CHO) the “ane” suffix is changed by “al” forming propanal.
3. So, the IUPAC name of the given compound is propanal.

Structure of Aldehydes

The general structure of aldehyde is shown below.

 Aldehyde

Here, the carbonyl carbon is \(s{p^{2}}\) hybridised. The chemical compounds containing carbonyl groups like aldehyde and ketone have planar geometry. The bond angle is 120 degrees. In the carbonyl group, the oxygen atom is more electronegative in nature than carbon which indicates that it is a polar group. As a result, the dipole moment is 2.3 D to 2.8 D.

Tests for Aldehydes

2, 4-DNP Test: Here, the organic compound is mixed with an acidic solution of 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine along with methanol. After some time, a formation of a red precipitate is observed. The red precipitate is of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone. The solid crystals are filtered and by recrystallisation method, solid mass is obtained. The hydrazone derivative has a distinct melting and boiling point which helps to detect the carbonyl group. Further, as the presence of the carbonyl group is detected, we can also find out whether the compound is ketone or aldehyde.

As the precipitate obtained is in solid form, it can be filtered out and the melting point of the solid can be determined. By comparing the melting point of the precipitate to the known value of ketone and aldehyde, the carbonyl group present in the compound can be detected.

Schiff’s reagent: It is a pink colour dye which gets decolourised by passing sulphur dioxide gas. When aldehyde is treated with Schiff’s reagent, the colour is retained.

Summary

Aldehyde is one of the classes of functional groups containing a carbonyl carbon attached to oxygen by a double bond and to an alkyl group and hydrogen by a single bond. The aldehyde can be identified by the suffix “al”. The general formula of aldehyde is R-CHO. Higher grade aldehydes are used for the preparation of perfumes and colouring agents due to their sweet smell. The aldehyde can also be synthesised by different methods as discussed. A few examples of aldehydes are formaldehyde, Ethanal, Propanal, Butanal etc. Some naturally occurring aldehydes are vanillin, citral, etc.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Why are aromatic aldehydes less reactive than aliphatic aldehydes?

Ans: Aromatic aldehydes are less reactive because the lone pair of oxygen atoms is involved in resonance with the benzene molecule. This makes the carbonyl group less nucleophilic. 

2. Which reducing agent is used for aldehydes?

Ans: Sodium Borohydride is also called as tetra hydrido borate is used as a reducing agent of aldehydes. The aldehydes are converted into primary alcohols. 

3. Which type of aldehyde compound can undergo aldol condensation?

Ans: The aldehyde compound containing alpha hydrogen undergo aldol condensation. This is because only compounds with alpha hydrogen can form beta-hydroxy aldehydes, which is the end product of the reaction. 

Introduction

The “Making of a Scientist” is a story about renowned scientist Richard Ebright”. From the very beginning of his life, he had a natural curiosity. He began collecting butterflies when he was a little child, and when he was in “second grade”, he had gathered all 25 kinds that could be found in his area. He also collected rocks, fossils, and coins.

Short Summary of Making of a Scientist

The protagonist is the famous scientist Richard Ebright. An innate interest was there in him from an early age. As a young boy, he began collecting butterflies; by the time he was in the “second grade,” he had amassed specimens of all “25 varieties” found in his region. He amassed a collection of “rocks, fossils, and coins,” too. He read “The Voyage of Monarch X,” a “book” given to him by his mother. He reached a turning point in his life when he was introduced to the scientific world and this work. He also understood that it is not enough to merely follow the crowd if one wants to achieve their goals. During the “country science fair,” he was able to participate in hands-on scientific activities.

Scientist

Then, he chose to research the virus that yearly wipes off nearly all monarch caterpillars as his eighth-grade project. For this reason, he bred caterpillars alongside beetles in the hopes of discovering the insect’s identity. Unfortunately for him, he was completely wrong. His plan for next year’s science fair project was to conduct an experiment to see if viceroy butterflies can successfully mimic monarchs. His research paper won third place at the national level but took first place in the zoology section.

During his sophomore year of high school, “Richard Ebright” conducted research that would ultimately lead to the identification of an unnamed “insect hormone” and the creation of his groundbreaking theory on the nature of cells.

He persisted through high school and college with his challenging experiment, and he discovered the hormones’ chemical composition. Ebright and his roommate fashioned a plastic replica of a molecule of DNA to demonstrate its operation.

About the author

Newspaper writer, freelance journalist, and author of various books on sports and current events “Robert W. Peterson” (1925-2006). The publication of his book “Only the Ball Was White” in 1970, which focused on the “Negro Leagues,” was his most significant contribution to the sport of baseball.

Conclusion

The story conveys a message that anything is possible with hard effort, endurance, and dedication.

Textbook Questions and Answers

1. How did a book become a turning point in Richard Ebright’s life?

Ans: Richard became interested in science after reading “The Travels of Monarch X.” After reading it, he developed an interest in monitoring butterfly migration. His other initiatives and experiments were a result of this passion. He eventually became a great scientist

2. How did his mother help him?

Ans: The assistance of Richard’s mother was beneficial. She bought him scientific equipment and took him on outings. She devoted all of her efforts to set new challenges for him.  She gave him “The Travels of Monarch X,” a book. Richard’s life is altered by the novel permanently.

3. What lesson does Ebright learn when he does not win anything at a science fair?

Ans: At a science fair, Ebright displayed slides of frog tissues. He received no award. He realized that science is more than merely a means of a show. Projects and experiments are the subjects. From that day onwards, he began conducting experiments.

4. What experiments and projects does he then undertake?

Ans: He worked on numerous projects and experiments. To demonstrate how closely they resemble monarch butterflies, he worked on viceroy butterflies. He looked at the monarch pupa’s colorful patches and found a new hormone. Additionally, he discovered how cells read their DNA.

5. What are the qualities that go into the making of a scientist?

Ans: A scientist must possess three things to succeed. The first has an excellent mind. The presence of curiosity comes next. Last but not least, there is the desire to succeed.

6. How can one become a scientist, an economist, or a historian … ? Does it simply involve reading many books on the subject? Does it involve observing, thinking, and doing experiments?

Ans: It is not enough to read several books on a subject. One needs to develop their ability to observe and think. There should be experimentation. Above all, one must put in a lot of effort and learn to accept failure.

7. You must have read about cells and DNA in your science books. Discuss Richard Ebright’s work in light of what you have studied. If you get an opportunity to work like Richard Ebright on projects and experiments, which field would you like to work in and why?

Ans: DNA is the blueprint for life and inheritance. They transmit knowledge from one generation to the next. I would prefer to study diseases if I had the chance to work as Richard Ebright. I might learn how to treat numerous diseases by researching DNA.

Additional Important Questions Answers

1.What is so special about mothers?

Ans: Moms are the most selfless people on Earth because they love their children even before they are born. Nothing can compare to the unconditional love of a mother for her child.

 2. Where did Richard grow up?

Ans: Richard was the only kid his parents ever had. Reading was always a priority for him as he grew up in Pennsylvania. He had no friends or companions with whom to pass the time. This led to him starting a collection of rocks, fossils, and currency.

3. Who influenced Ebright’s life the most?

Ans: Both Ebright’s mother, who helped him when he was young, and Dr. Urquhart, who sparked his interest in butterflies, played crucial parts in his development.

Introduction

Matilda, the protagonist, is a selfish young woman. Because she was born into a family of clerks and because they could not afford a dowry, she is now married to a clerk despite having always sought a wealthy spouse. The minister’s wife and her minister’s husband are invited to a party at the minister’s home. However, Matilda lacks the fancy attire and accessories required to attend this event. Her spouse suggests she go shopping for a new outfit and contact a mutual acquaintance for some jewels. After borrowing some accessories from a pal, she heads out to the party. What happened next teaches the sad woman an important lesson.

The Necklace Short Summary

Matilda and her husband M. Loisel had an apartment and Matilda was dissatisfied and unhappy with her life. Her parents had to give her away to a board of education clerk since they couldn’t afford a dowry. Matilda was also envious of her wealthy acquaintance Mme. Jeanne Forestier, so she avoided seeing her whenever possible. She would get upset and cry for days after visiting her. When he was in office, the minister of public instruction once invited her spouse to a party at his home.

Necklace

Saddened by the fact that she’d brought absolutely nothing suitable for such an extravagant party, she left early. Her husband gave her $400 he’d been saving for a pistol so he and his buddies could go hunting. She was let down by the purchase because she couldn’t accessorise the dress with anything else she already had. Friend “Mme. Forestier,” her husband said, would be a good source for some jewels.

Mme. Loisel’s visit to her pal’s place. They were given free rein to choose whatever struck their fancy. This diamond necklace was Matilda’s choice. They then proceeded to the celebration. Soon after they left, she discovered she was missing her necklace and began to panic. When she and her husband went shopping for new jewellery, they found a comparable one for “36 000 francs,” despite his suggestion that she explain the issue to their mutual acquaintance. The good news is that M. Loisel was able to borrow the remaining funds after inheriting “18000 francs” from his father.

It took them ten years to repay all of the debts, and during that time, a lot happened. Matilda’s health declined as she was compelled to take on all of the housework. Matilda’s friend Jeanne, whom she ran into on the way, revealed that the necklace was a fake and not worth even “500 francs”

About the author

French author Henri René Albert Guy de Maupassant’ (5 August 1850 – 6 July 1893) is regarded as a master of the short story genre, and a member of the naturalist school of writers”

Conclusion

The story conveys the message  that “honesty is the best policy.” If Matilda had been honest with her friend about the necklace, she would have saved herself from living a terrible life

The Necklace Question Answer

1. The course of Loisel’s life changed due to the necklace. Comment.

Ans: The Loisels had to pay back the money they borrowed to buy the jewellery over the course of ten years. It had a dramatic impact on their daily lives. They were uprooted and sent to the city’s worst neighbourhoods. Matilda had to do everything from shopping for food and bartering with the butcher and grocer on her own because she had no servants or other help. The couple’s debt forced the husband to put in long hours. The jewellery affected their lifestyle in this way.

2. What was the cause of Matilda’s ruin? How could she have avoided it?

Ans: The cause of Matilda’s downfall is her arrogance, her desire for materialistic things, and her dishonesty. By developing a sense of acceptance for her existing circumstance and satisfaction with what she had, she may have prevented it.

3. What would have happened to Matilda if she had confessed to her friend that she had lost her necklace?

Ans: Matilda could have avoided her doom if she had been honest and truthful. She would have learned that the necklace was a fake that only cost “500 francs” if she had been brave enough to tell her friend the truth about it. She wouldn’t have used her husband’s entire inheritance and taken out a loan for “18,000” to replace it. She would have saved herself and her husband from ten years of poverty.

4. If you were caught in a situation like this, how would you have dealt with it?

Ans: Above all, I would have tried to avoid falling prey to my ego and ambitions. If I had been in that position, I would have told the truth and accepted the consequences. For me, being honest was the best course of action.

Extra Questions of the Necklace Class 10

1. The Necklace: What Does It Mean?

Ans: Having to repay the debt for the necklace’s loss is a constant reminder of the life “Madame Mathilde Loisel” yearns for but can’t have, and so she wears the necklace as a reminder of that. Because of her desire to live that way, she meets an untimely death.

2. What were Loisel’s thoughts on her destiny?

Ans; Mme Loisel was the type of lady who had plenty, but she wasn’t content with it. She always believed that she was destined to enjoy all the fineries and comforts, but by some strange twist of fate, she was born into a family of clerks.

3. How does the necklace depict greed?

Ans:  Mathilde picks the most expensive-looking necklace from Mme. Forestier’s jewellery box is out of greed, and the massive debt she and her husband pay to replace the lost necklace can be understood as a logical result of that greed.

Introduction

‘The Book that saved the Planet’ is a play typical of those you’d hear in a museum devoted to ancient civilizations somewhere in the twentieth century. With the help of some fictional characters, the drama describes the Martian invasion of Earth in the twenty-first century.

Summary of the poem

Claire Bioko wrote the drama That Saved the Planet, which was published as the Book.

The author, posing as a historian, sat in an ancient museum in the 25th century and told the account of the martian invasion of Earth in the 21st.

A few of the characters in the play had humorously offbeat titles, like the great Chief “Think-Tank,” Apprentice Noodle, Captain Omega, Lieutenant Iota, and Sergeant Oop.

Big-headed think tank believed himself to be the most formidable and astute alien member of the squad. A trip to Earth and an invasion of the continent were in his future.

His teammates were waiting for him to report back on the planet’s lifestyle and whether or not its inhabitants were capable of establishing similar governments. Pretty quickly, they reached the planet’s Centerville Public Library, where they were engulfed by volumes on all sides. The invasion of Earth by Think Tank and his men has finally begun.

They landed on a bookcase, and per the Think tank’s directive, Captain Omega, Lieutenant Iota, and Sergeant Oop sampled the literature on display.

A Book

According to the think tank, the people now dwelling on Earth have a voracious appetite.

Yet Captain Omega and Lieutenant refused to partake, ordering Sergeant Oop to sample it. Forced to comply, Oop munched on a corner of the book and said it was not appetising.

Only a few minutes later, everyone had followed Apprentice Noodles’s instructions and gotten books from the shelf for any aural communication needs they might have.

Noodle suggested that everyone read a book of children’s rhymes called “Mother Goose,” but they could not hear anything, so she redirected them and suggested that they try communicating visually instead. No one, however, caught on.

As time went on, Apprentice Noodles recalled that they had received some vitamin pills delivered by the chemical department of Mars, prompting him to urge Think Tank to instruct the entire Martian crew to take the pills, which would increase their IQ.

Following that, when Think started reading “Mother Goose,” he was terrified to learn that Earth’s human population was already aware of their invasion and intended to exterminate them.

Being aware of this, Think Tank ordered his workers to quickly evacuate the building without leaving any traces. To this end, a children’s rhyming book averted global catastrophe.

About the poet

Claire Bioko was a renowned  writer who was born on 17th May in Massachusetts. She is mostly known for her Children’s playwrights. She is also popular for her drama parodies of many stories and was a part-time resident of New paltz.

Conclusion

The play Book that saved the Earth portrayed how a Children’s rhyme book, “Mother Goose”, saved the Earth from being invaded by a group of extraterrestrial species who read them by sitting on a bookshelf.

Textbook Questions and Answers

1.How Noodles managed to correct the mistakes of Think Tank?

Ans: Noodle never offended Think tank. Instead, he always placed his thought that these are some insignificant data in his mind and then explained his thought to him. In this way, Think tank never felt that he was wrong.

2.What plan did Martians make for invading Earth?

Ans: The Martians planned to invade the land on Earth and also wanted to rule the planet under their reign. They also wanted to know how Humans survived on this planet.

3.Can you ever think of replacing those books available in the 20th century to get an electronic form?

Ans: Yes, we can convert all the books from that century into ebooks format by incorporating beautiful images and animations. This will attract all age groups’ readers.

4.Why are books considered to be man’s best companions?

Ans: Books are considered a man’s best companion or friend as they guide us in the best possible ways by being a true guide for knowledge in the form of novels, plays, short stories, poems, fictional stories, horror stories etc.

The Book That Saved the Earth Extra Questions and Answers

1. What is the ‘Era of the Book?

Ans: The 20th century is sometimes called the “age of books” because of the proliferation of books covering every topic imaginable (what to do, what not to do, why something may happen, etc.).

2. How did the book save the Martians?

Ans: An old book from the 20th century named “Mother Goose” a Children’s rhyme book saved the conquering by the Martians. They misinterpreted the meaning of the lines and thought the Humans on Earth had some advanced technology and might invade them back. Knowing this they immediately called off their plan and decided to leave without leaving any imprints.

3.How did Noodles describe the so-called “sandwich”?

Ans: Noodles dithered to tell Think tank the sandwich might contain some insignificant information that might not be used for eating but it can be used as a material of communication with eyes.

Introduction

Writer Herbert George Wells has written this piece. In this interesting account, a scientist known only as “Griffin” develops a concoction that makes its user invisible.

Summary

The story follows Griffin, a scientist who is also the protagonist. After much investigation, he decided to try some experimental drugs that promised to render him invisible. Two young boys heard his footsteps as he climbed the stairs of a house and saw him for the first time. They started following them right away. Thereafter, he seeks shelter from the cold by entering a shopping centre. Once the shops have closed, he decides to bundle up and have a snack.

Invisible Man

He begins by dressing in a selection of the garments he has removed from his suitcase. After that, he goes to a restaurant’s kitchen and eats cold steak with coffee. After that, he goes to the supermarket and buys some wine and pastries to enjoy later. He woke up when the store’s personnel spotted him and began chasing him. He shed his clothes in an instant and vanished once again. When London’s winters finally arrived, he started wandering about naked once more.

The actor then plans to rob a theatre, where he is confident he will also be able to get a mask. When he has to conceal his identity further, he dons a cap, dark glasses, a prosthetic nose, and bandages.

Following a fistfight with the store owner, he walks out with all of his cash. He quickly comes to the conclusion that city life in London isn’t for him and that he’d be better off in the country. He books a room at an Iping hamlet inn for the two of them.

As he arrives in Iping, the people are perplexed that a man of such unusual looks would choose to spend the winter at a tavern. He robs people when he has no more money and attacks the landlord and his wife if they come to check on him. Griffin eluded the constable’s attempts to apprehend him.

About the author

Herbert George Wells, an English writer, lived from September 21, 1866, until August 13, 1946. Among his many works are novels, short tales, social criticism, satire, biographies, memoirs, and even two volumes on light strategy games. His output spanned a wide variety of forms.

Conclusion

He had been researching how to turn a man invisible. His experiment was successful, and he came up with a formula that would allow him to turn invisible while yet being physically felt.

Textbook Questions and Answers

1. How did the invisible man first become visible?

Ans: Two boys followed the invisible guy until they saw his footprints in the mud, at which point the boys gave up and the man regained his invisibility. Throwing them away, he spent the night at a large London shop, where he slept on a stack of blankets while only partially dressed. The following morning, while he was still sleeping, he heard the doors of the store opening and the staff filing in.

2. Why was he wandering the streets?

Ans: When Griffin’s landlord tried to kick him out, he retaliated by setting fire to the place. He was an outlaw who had removed all identifying features by shedding his clothes. This led to him living on the streets as a homeless vagrant. He had run out of both money and clothing.

3. Why does Mrs. Hall find the scientist eccentric?

Ans: Griffin landed at an inn in the wintertime in the village of Iping, which was an unusual thing that happened. In addition, he had an odd appearance. He was disrespectful to Mrs. Hall when she tried to become friends with him and said that he was visiting the village of Iping for solitude and didn’t want to be disturbed. These were a few of the factors that Mrs. Hall used to label him as an eccentric scientist.

4. What curious episode occurs in the study?

Ans: One early morning, noises in the clergyman’s study room woke him and his wife. The clergyman searched the study with a metal rod but was unable to find anyone. He even checked behind the curtain, up the chimney, and beneath the desk, but no one was there. The weirdest thing was that the desk was open and the cash drawer was empty despite no one being present.

5. What other extraordinary things happen at the inn?

Ans: The landlord and his wife were taken aback to see Griffin’s room doors open. When they looked inside, they saw that nobody was there, so they decided to explore. He never even liked others to try to enter his room, so they thought it was odd that the door was open. As Mrs. Hall was looking inside, she heard a sniff near her ear and was suddenly struck in the face by Griffin’s hat. 

Footprints without Feet Extra Questions

1. Why was Mrs. Hall delighted to see the stranger?

Ans: At that time of year, there weren’t many visitors staying at the “Coach and Horses” inn, so Mrs. Hall was overjoyed to welcome one. As the stranger promptly paid all of his bills and reserved a room in advance. Mrs. Hall was quite pleased with it.

2. What traits did Griffin possess?

Ans: Griffin is incredibly impatient and irritated. He becomes irrationally angry and begins to harm other people. Even though his father’s death was caused by his burglary, he has lost his conscience and does not feel bad.

3. What ultimately happened to Griffin?

Ans: The bystanders arrived at the scene where Griffin was riding on the dead Kemp thanks to Kemp’s calls for aid. Griffin was violently beaten by the crowd after they grabbed hold of him. Some of the blows were fatal, and he died from his wounds. He died in this manner.